LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 

GIFT  OK 

Received                  JYcTV    ■  >Q°o  . 
Accession  No.  o/fo  3  /     ■    Class  No.      \       .  '. 

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THE  NEW  PACIFIC 


SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY. 


BY 


HARR  WAGNER, 

Author  of  Pacific  History  Stories,  and  Editor  of  The  Western  Journal  of  Education. 


Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way ; 

The  first  four  acts  already  past, 
A  fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day; 

Time's  noblest  offspring  is  the  last. 

—  Berkeley. 


OLYMPIA,  WASHINGTON: 

THE  WESTLAND   PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 

1900. 


Copyrighted,  1900,  by 
HARR  WAGNER. 


W.  H.  Gould, 
Typogeaphkb. 

Pbfss  op 
'.  a.  mubdock  &  co. 

AND 

hobwinski    bbos. 
San  Francisco. 


I  loo 


PREFACE. 

The  Aim  has  been  to  make  a  complete  one-book  geography  for  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  grades  of  the  public 
schools.  In  arranging  a  course  of  study,  therefore,  the  first  years  of  school  life  may  be  devoted  to  nature-study,  and  the 
pupils  of  upper  grades  and  of  the  high  school  may  pursue  the  study  of  geography  in  a  more  scientific  manner, —  part 
with  history,  part  with  geology,  part  with  civil  government,  and  part  with  natural  history. 

Local  Features.  The  child  should  know  first  about  his  own  environment.  A  systematic  study  of  a  subject 
should  be  along  the  pupil's  prospective  commercial  activity.  A  handful  of  soil  from  the  child's  playground  is  a  peda- 
gogical beginning  for  the  study  of  geography.  A  large  part  of  this  book  is  therefore  devoted  to  Washington  and  the 
New  Pacific. 

The  Illustrations  are  made  from  photographs,  many  of  which  have  been  taken  during  the  past  year.  Special 
attention  has  been  given  to  pictures  that  illustrate  the  industrial  features  of  the  Greater  West. 

The  Spelling.  The  author,  with  one,  or  two  exceptions,  has  followed  the  rulings  of  the  United  States  Board  on 
Geographic  Names. 

Other  Features.  While  special  emphasis  has  been  placed  upon  the  geography  of  Washington  and  the  Pacific, 
there  are  few  school  geographies  that  contain  so  much  definite  information.  The  cablegram,  telegram,  and  modern 
facilities  of  travel  place  all  regions  of  the  earth  in  quick  communication  with  each  other.  This  makes  it  necessary 
that  the  pupils  in  our  public  schools  should  have  a  precise  knowledge  of  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  information 
is  therefore   made   definite,  so   that   the  text  may  be  a  reference-book  for  the  pupil's  general  reading. 

A  Live  Text.  The  author  has  aimed  to  impart  the  idea  of  a  living  earth.  The  growth  of  plants,  the  growth 
of  cities,  the  growth  of  nations,  are  represented.  The  building  of  valleys  and  the  tearing  down  of  mountains  are 
illustrated.     The  book  throbs  with   life.     The  pulse  of   the  earth  does   not   stop.      Its  ceaseless  force  is  in  the  heart 

T 

of  nature. 

Study  and  Reference  Maps.  The  child  is  usually  confused  by  having  placed  before  him  a  large  number  of 
maps  with  an  infinite  amount  of  detail.  The  maps  in  this  geography  are  to  help  the  child,  and  they  contain  all 
that  the  child  needs,  unless  a  foreign  trip  is  contemplated.     In  that  case  a  trustworthy  guide-book  should  be  used. 

Etymology  of  Geographical  Names.  The  pupils  and  teachers  will  find  instructive  and  interesting  the  mean- 
ing of  geographical  names. 

Acknowledgments.  The  author  wishes  to  express  his  gratitude  to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London,  to 
the  United  States  Board  on  Geographic  Names,  to  the  American  Geographical  Society,  to  Mr.  Fee  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railroad  Company,  to  Mr.  Alna  L.  Crane  of  the  Union  Engraving  Company  for  expert  work  on  maps,  to 
Mr.  D.  R.  Augsburg  for  the  lesson  on  map-sketching,  and  to  Mr.  W.  N.  Allen  for  the  article  on  the  climate  of  Wash- 
ington. 

HARR   WAGNER. 

San  Francisco,  California,  1900. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


Field  Work.  This  must  be  the  basis  of  Primary  Geog- 
raphy. It  must  be  broader  than  the  study  of  a  creek,  a  river, 
a  flower,'  an  animal,  or  the  building  of  continents  in  sand. 

The  sand  table  is  an  old  device,  but  there  is  method  in  it. 
Close  and  accurate  observation  of  the  forms  of  the  earth's 
surface  and  life  is  much  better  than  the  study  of  them  in 
sand,  clay,  or  papier-mache.  Field  work  is  nothing  more, 
nothing  less,  than  teaching  the  child  to  observe  the  life  of 
his  environment.  The  child  must  seek  for  truth  in  his  own 
door-yard. 

For  illustration,  in  an  outdoor  lesson  on  the  common 
birds  of  the  neighborhood  and  school-yai'd,  the  children 
should  observe  the  habits  of  food-getting,  flight,  song,  nest- 
ing, perching,  and  swimming. 

The  older  children  should  keep  a  note-book  containing 
records  of  observations  of  birds.  Accurate  oral  and  written 
expression  should  be  developed.  A  collection  of  the  min- 
erals of  the  neighborhood  offers  a  most  interesting  and 
profitable  field  for  outdoor  work.  Field  excursions  should 
be  frequent.  Distances  and  areas  should  be  actually  meas- 
ured; elevations  estimated;  vegetation,  animals,  and  soil 
should  be  noticed. 

Pictures.  It  is  important  that  the  children  should  be 
taught  to  observe  pictures,  and  to  interpret  them.  The  pic- 
tures in  this  book  are  an  intrusion,  unless  they  teach  a  les- 
son. This  is  an  age  of  picture  study.  Each  picture  should 
teach  something.  The  picture  of  the  capitol  at  Washington 
is  made  large,  not  for  the  purpose  of  filling  up  space,  but 
to  make  a  definite  impression  on  the  mind  of  the  child.  You 
should  ask  such  questions  about  this  picture  as  to  lead  the 
child  to  compare  its  architecture  with  that  of  European 
buildings.  The  child  will  see  a  dozen  pictures  of  Niagara 
Falls.  In  this  text,  it  is  Niagara  by  moonlight;  in  another 
text,  it  may  be  Niagara  in  midwinter.  These  changes  of 
view  mean  something.  It  makes  the  picture  live  to  the 
child.  Whether  a  Millet,  a  Michael  Angelo,  or  an  amateur 
photographer  makes  a  picture,  it  has  its  lesson. 

Teachers  should  collect  a  large  number  of  pictures  from 
railroad  folders,  magazines,  books,  newspapers,  and  local 
photographers,  and  also  art  pictures  published  by  various 
houses,  that  illustrate  the  work  in  geography. 

Maps.  The  United  States  Geological  Survey  has  pub- 
lished several  hundred  maps  that  are  a  great  aid  to  the  live 
teacher  of  geography. 

These  maps  may  be  secured  for  from  two  cents  to  eighty 
cents.  The  new  map  of  the  United  States,  about  six  by 
nine  feet,  will  be  sent  to  any  school  district  for  eighty 
cents.  The  National  Educational  Association  has  especially 
recommended  the  use  of  governmental  maps  in  schools. 
Full  particulars  may  be  obtained  by  addressing  the  Director, 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 


The  American  Bureau  of  Geography  has  been  recently 
organized.  The  director  is  Edward  M.  Lehnerts,  Winona, 
Minnesota. 

The  aim  of  the  bureau  is  twofold:  1.  To  make  available 
to  each  member  the  valuable  geographical  material  in  the 
possession  of  his  fellow-members;  and  2.  To  establish  in- 
fluences helpful  to  the  teaching  and  the  teacher  of  geog- 
raphy. 

In  accordance  with  this  aim,  the  plan  of  work  of  the  bu- 
reau includes, —  1.  Correspondence  with  educational  men 
and  women  interested  in  geography,  who  desire  improvement 
in  its  teaching;  2.  The  organization  of  a  system  of  exchange 
in  products,  geographic  photographs,  etc.  An  illustration 
will  make  this  clearer.  Suppose  a  fellow- teacher  in  Washing- 
ton desires  illustrative  material  for  his  geography  classes.  On 
the  lists  furnished  every  member  of  the  geographic  bureau 
he  finds  the  addresses  of  members  in  various  states,  terri- 
tories, and  foreign  countries,  and  notes  the  material  each 
offers  for  exchange.  He  then  places  himself  in  direct  com- 
munication with  those  members  who  offer  what  he  wishes 
to  secure;  and  in  the  mean  time,  with  the  help  of  his  pupils, 
he  makes  up  local  collections  for  the  subsequent  exchanges. 

For  the  trifling  expense  of  freight  and  postage  every 
school  can  obtain  a  considerable  collection  of  valuable  illus- 
trative material. 

Structural  Geography.  Oral  and  printed  descriptions 
of  surface  are  not  sufficient  to  give  children  a  correct  idea  of 
forms.  Relief  maps,  profiles,  and  pictures  of  relief  maps 
may  not  give  a  correct  idea  of  the  various  formations  of  the 
earth,  but  they  are  an  aid.  The  slopes,  mountain  systems, 
hills,  valleys,  river  basins,  drainage,  climate,  soil,  produc- 
tion, and  history  may  be  understood. 

The  construction  of  a  globe  is  not  only  good  manual  train- 
ing, but  it  is  also  good  geography.  Just  as  you  should  have 
the  pupils  draw,  so  you  should  have  the  pupils  build  and 
construct,  even  if  the  representation  is  not  perfect. 

Correlation  of  Nature  Work.    Dr.  0.  P.  Jenkins, 

of  Stanford  University,  has  outlined  a  provisional  course  in 
nature  study.  The  following  extracts  should  serve  as  a 
basis  for  nature  work  in  connection  with  geography: — 

Seeds.  Dispersal.  Arrangement  in  seed-ease.  Apparatus  for  dis- 
persal.    Collection  of  seeds  to  show  method  of  dispersal. 

Germination  and  growth  in  several  forms  of  seeds.  Conditions 
necessary  for  germination  and  growth.  How  the  plant  breaks  out  of 
the  seed;  how  it  gets  out  of  the  ground.  Growth  of  roots;  of  leaves, 
—  the  one  seeking  food  from  earth,  the  others  from  air.  Growth  of 
roots  from  cuttings, —  air-roots. 

All  the  phenomena  of  plant  life  easily  understood  by  the  children 
of  this  grade. 

Ants.  Life  history  and  habits  studied  from  a  nest  kept  in  the 
schoolroom,  also  by  observations  in  the  field. 

Pond  Life.  Jar  aquaria,  with  some  of  the  water  insects;  life, 
habits,  motions,  etc. 


8 


Suggestions  to  Teachers. 


9 


Coverings  of  Animals.  Feathers, —  structure,  form,  uses;  scales; 
hoofs;  claws:  fur  of  different  animals.  All  to  be  seen  as  adapted  to 
the  conditions  of  the  life  of  the  different  animals. 

Evaporation.  Liquids.  Compare  water,  alcohol,  gasoline,  glyce- 
rine molasses. 

Show  existence  of  vapor  by  use  of  ether,  alcohol,  chloroform. 

Show  that  heat  is  used  up  during  evaporation. 

Evaporation  of  solids,  such  as  camphor  and  iodine. 

Condensation. 

Show  sources  of  vapor  of  water  by  condensation  from  breath,  sur- 
face of  skin,  under  surface  of  leaf,  etc. 

Distill  water  from  a  flask. 

Solution.  Solution  of  various  common  substances  that  will  readily 
dissolve  in  water,  such  as  salt;  those  that  will  not  dissolve  readily,  as 
camphor,  potassium  bichromate,  copper  sulphate,  and  the  like;  those 
that  do  not  dissolve  perceptibly,  such  as  whiting,  starch,  etc. 

Evaporation  of  water  to  regain  substance,  formation  of  crystals,  in 
part. 

Use  of  funnel  and  filter-paper  to  show  dissolved  substances. 

Application  of  these  phenemena  to  fogs,  clouds,  snow,  rain,  forma- 
tion of  soils,  erosion,  etc. 

Diffusion  of  Gases. 

Study  of  the  candle  flame.     Parts  of  the  flame. 

How  the  flame  is  produced. 

Use  of  different  material  for  producing  flame. 

ILLUMINATING  Gas.     Preparation  of  gas  in  the  schoolroom. 

Process  of  burning  in  coal  and  wood. 


Preparation  of  gas  for  use  in  city. 
Visit  to  gas-works. 
Fruits.     CTse  of  edible  parts. 
Change  in  fruit  by  cultivation  and  selection. 

Structure  of  the  fruit,  its  parts,  their  arrangement  in  reference  to 
each  other. 

How  green  fruit  becomes  ripe. 
Digestion  of  starch  in  the  human  body. 
Use  of  sugar  in  plant  life;  in  animal  life. 

AIDS  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 

For  Teachers. 
King:  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography. 
Parker:  How  to  Study  Geography. 
G.  Stanley  Hall:  Story  of  a  Sand  Pile. 
Frye:  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins. 
Frye:  Geography,  with  Sand  Modeling. 
Report  of  Committee  of  Ten. 
Report  of  Committee  of  Fifteen. 
The  National  Geographic  Magazine. 
The  Journal  of  School  Geography. 
Shaler:  Story  of  Our  Continent. 

O.  P.  Jenkins  and  Vernon  Kellogg:  Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 
Bashford:  Nature  Stories  of  the  Northwest. 

Wagner:  Pacific  Nature  Stories       (Includes  Story  of  the  Salmon, 
by  President  David  Starr  Jordan.) 


J 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

THE  STORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY 11 

THE   STORY   OF  LAND  AND   WATER 12 

THE  STORY  OF  THE   SOIL 13 

THE    STORY   OF   WATER 15 

THE   STORY   OF   THE   WEATHER     .       .       ...       .       .16 

THE   STORY   OF  THE   EARTH     .              17 

Size  of  the  Earth 17 

Rotation  of  the  Earth 17 

Day  and  Night 18 

The  Earth  and  the  Sun 18 

The  Hemispheres 18 

Parallels  and  Meridians 18 

Latitude  and  Longitude 18 

Zones 18 

The  Divisions  of  the  Globe 19 

THE   STORY   OF  LIFE. 

Plants 22 

Forests 22 

Animals 22 

People 22 

Progress 23 

Occupations 24 

Government 24 

Religion 24 

LOCAL  AND  STRUCTURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Directions 25 

Field  Work 25 

Relief  Maps 25 

Outline  for  Study  of  a  County 25 

Map-Sketching — Washington 25 

THE   STORY   OF  WASHINGTON. 

Boundaries 29 

.Mountains 29 

Lakes 30 

River  Systems 30 

Puget  Sound 30 

Climate 31 

Soil 32 

Products 34 

Industries 34 

Commerce .       .       .       .  35 

Education 35 

Divisions 36 

Cities .       .  36 

Animal  and  Plant  Life 37 

NORTH   AMERICA. 

Boundaries 41 

Highlands 41 

Lowlands 41 

Divisions. 

Danish  America 42 

The  Dominion  of  Canada 42 

Mexico 43 


PAGI 

Central  America 43 

The  West  Indies 44 

THE   NEW  PACIFIC. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands 45 

The  Philippines 46 

Australasia               : 47 

Other  Islands 48 

UNITED  STATES   OF  AMERICA. 

Location 49 

Growth 50 

People 51 

Religion 51 

Products  and  Industries 51 

Commerce 52 

Transportation 52 

Government 52 

Pacific  States 57 

New  England  States 61 

Middle  Atlantic  States 64 

Southern  States 65 

Central  States         67 

Mountain  and  Plateau  States  and  Territories         .       .  69 

SOUTH  AMERICA 75 

EUROPE 81 

ASIA 105 

AFRICA 119 

THE  BUILDING   OF   CITIES 127 

GENERAL   REVIEW 129 

STATISTICS  AND   GENERAL   INFORMATION             .       .  131 

ETYMOLOGY  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL   NAMES         .       .       .134 

PRONUNCIATION   OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES       .       .  137 


MAPS. 

Eastern  Hemisphere 19 

Western  Hemisphere 20 

Washington 28 

Relief  Map  of  Washington 39 

Map  of  New  Pacific 47 

United  States 50 

North  America 53 

Industrial  and  Relief  Map  of  United  States    .       .       .  54 

Mountain,  Plateau,  and  Pacific  States        ....  56 

Vegetation  Chart  of  North  and  South  Amkrica             .  73 

South  America '"* 

Europe '8 

Vegetation  Chart  of  Europe 79 

Asia «« 

Vegetation  Chart  of  Asia 104 

Africa H8 

Vegetation  Chart  of  Africa 126 

Commercial  Map  of  the  World        .              ....  130 


THE  NEW  PACIFIC  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Our  Side  of  the  Earth. 


THE  STORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


A    READING    LESSON. 


The  Earth  is  a  workshop.  The  Sun  is  the  great  master. 
There  extends  from  it  to  the  earth  so  much  of  light  and  heat, 
that  water,  air,  and  soil  are  ever  full  of  life.  The  story  of 
this  life  is  more  charming  than  the  doings  of  a  fairy  prince. 
Have  you  ever  asked  yourself  about  the  big,  round  sun  as 
it  came  up  iu  the  east  ?  Have  you  watched  the  approach  of 
the  golden  light  as  it  climbed  in  and  out  among  the  trees, 
and  crept  along  the  ground,  chasing  the  dewdrops,  and  the 
shadows  of  darkness!     Hail  to  the  morning  light! 

The  story  of  how  the  sun  changes  water  into  vapor  and 
lifts  it  into  the  air,  to  descend  again  in  the  form  of  rain  or 
snow,  is  full  of  interest.  The  sun  sets  the  air  in  motion, 
thus  creating  the  winds  which  give  rise  to  the  waves  that 
roll  over  the  deep  oceau,  and  beat  against  the  shores  with 
such  force  as  to  ever  make  changes.  The  great  Sun,  with 
heat  and  light  as  its  ready  helpers,  has  written  the  whole 
history  of  the  earth. 

Geography  is  a  description  of  the  earth.  It  is  more  than 
a  description  of  things  that  are  lifeless,  for  it  tells  about 
the  running  brook,  the  playful  child,  the  roaring  sea,  the 


smoking  mountain,  the  growling  tiger,   the  singing  bird, 
the  great  cities,  the  little  farm,  the  great   redwoods,  the 
pretty  flowers,  the  puffing  train,  the  sailing  ship,  the  fer 
tile  fields,  the  silent  desert. 

The  earth  is  not  lifeless.  It  is  nature's  workshop. 
There  is  no  idleness  here.  The  toil  is  ceaseless.  If  you 
watch  a  raindrop  as  it  strikes  the  ground,  you  will  see  that 
it  has  a  work  to  do.  The  building  up  or  tearing  down  of 
hills,  of  river  banks,  of  islands,  of  capes,  of  harbors,  of 
valleys  and  mountains,  is  now  going  on.  Take  a  close  look 
at  the  school-grounds  after  a  great  rain-storm,  and  you  will 
see  the  soil  has  not  been  idle.  When  you  go  to  the  sea- 
shore, watch  the  waves  as  they  battle  with  the  laud. 

Geography,  then,  is  the  wonderful  story  of  the  life  of  the 

earth. 

QUESTIONS. 

Is  the  earth  full  of  life  ?  How  does  the  sun  affect  the  earth '?  What 
is  geography  ? 

Composition  Work.  Write  a  composition  of  ten  or  more  sen- 
tences, describing  some  of  the  things  you  saw  on  your  way  to  school, 
that  are  suggested  in  this  lesson. 


11 


12 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


THE  STORY  OF  THE  LAND  AND  WATER. 


Some  children  may  not  have  seen  real  mountains,  valleys, 
peninsulas,  rivers,  and  other  forms  of  land  and  water.  Each 
child  should  study  the  above  picture  of  a  number  of  forms. 

A  Mountain  is  a  mass  of  land  much  higher  than  the 
other  land  in  the  same  region. 

A  Mountain  Range  is  a  line  or  row  of  mountains. 

A  Mountain  System  is  formed  by  several  ranges  united 
by  high  lands. 

Hills  are  not  so  large  nor  so  high  as  mountains. 

Valleys  are  formed  by  the  land  between  hills  and 
mountains. 

A  Slope  is  the  side  of  a  hill  or  mountain. 

A  Base  is  the  foot  of  the  slope  of  a  mountain  or  hill. 

A  Brook  is  a  small,  running  stream  of  water. 

A  River  is  a  large,  running  stream  of  water. 

The  Source  is  where  the  river  begins. 

The  Mouth  is  where  the  river  empties  into  another  body 
of  water. 

The  Right  Bank  or  Left  Bank  of  a  river  is  the  bank 
on  the  right  hand  or  left  hand  as  one  goes  down  the  stream. 


The  Bed  op  a  River  is  the  ground  over  which  the  water 
flows. 

The  Tributaries  are  streams  that  run  into  other  streams. 

A  River  System  is  a  large  river  with  its  tributaries. 

A  River  Basin  is  the  land  drained  by  the  river  and  its 
tributaries. 

A  Harbor  is  a  body  of  water  in  which  ships  can  be  an- 
chored. 

A  Volcano  is  a  mountain  or  hill  from  which  steam,  lava, 
and  cinders  are  ejected;   a  burning  mountain. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  mountain ?  Where  have  you  seen  one  V  What  is  a  moun- 
tain range?  What  is  a  mountain  system?  Describe  a  hill.  What 
is  a  valley?  What  is  a  slope?  Describe  a  brook;  a  river.  Where 
is  the  source  of  a  river?  Where  the  mouth?  Which  is  the  left  bank 
of  a  river  ?  Which  the  right  bank  ?  What  is  the  bed  of  a  river  ?  What 
is  a  river  system  ?     What  is  a  river  basin  ?     Describe  a  harbor. 

Field  Work.  Have  your  pupils  study  out  of  doors  the  various 
formations  of  the  earth's  surface. 

Composition  Work.  Write  a  composition  of  twenty  or  more  sen- 
tences, describing  the  various  features  named  that  you  have  seen. 


The  Story  of  the  Soil. 


13 


THE  STORY  OF  THE  SOIL. 


The  upper  part  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  called  soil. 
It  is  that  part  of  the  ground  that  feeds  the  plants,  the  trees, 
and  the  flowers.  In  some  parts  of  the  earth  the  soil 
has  beeu  enriched  by  decayed  vegetation.  In  other 
places,  like  the  desert,  the  soil  is  so  poor  that  nothing 
will  grow.  The  condition  of  the  soil  of  a  region  de- 
termines many  things.  When  no  water  mixes  with 
the  soil,  the  desert  exists;  where  there  is  too  much 
water,  swamps  and  marshes  may  be  found.  -'Where 
the  soil  is  well  watered  by  rain  and  rivers,  dense  for- 
ests, large  plants,  and  fields  of  grain  may  be  seen. 
The  soil  in  valleys  and  on  plains  is  usually  much  richer 
than  that  of  slopes.  As  a  rule,  there  are  always  more 
people,  birds,  and  animals  where  the  soil  is  good. 

The  rain  mixes  with  the  soil,  and  when  the  sun 
warms  the  earth,  vegetation  starts  to  grow.  The 
water  feeds  the  soil  at  the  roots  of  the  trees,  and  soon 
green  leaves  may  be  seen  on  the  branches.  Water 
makes  the  roots  of  the  brown  grass  take  on  new  life, 
and  every  blade  turns  a  beautiful  green.  No  matter 
how  rich  the  soil,  it  would  be  worthless  without  water. 
In  some  parts  of  the  country  there  are  thousands  of 
acres  of  land  where  the  soil  would  produce  large  har- 
vests if  it  could  be  watered.  There  is  not  sufficient 
rain,  and  the  people  build  great  dams  and  irrigating- 
ditches,  and  the  barren  plains  made  to  become  fertile  fields. 

Farmers  plow  in  order  to  turn  up  fresh  soil,  and  to  loosen 
it  so  that  the  rain  can  sink  more  easily  into  the  ground.  A 
heavy  rain,  too,  will  sometimes  carry  the  fine  soil  from  the 
surface  of  slopes  into  the  streams.  The  soil  in  the  river  is 
what  makes  it  muddy.  , 

Water  is  continually  wearing  away  the  earth,  changing 
the  slopes,  river  banks,  and  beds  of  streams.  While 
water  is  doing  this,  however,  nature  is  building  up  the 
soil  again  by  the  vegetation  produced.  The  soil  is 
formed  by  the  water  wearing  away  the  rocks  and  mix- 
ing the  particles  with  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 

Take  a  handful  of  soil  from  the  field,  school-yard, 
or  the  street,  and  examine  it.  We  fiud  it  to  be  dirt 
that  "soils"  the  hands.  When  we  try  to  brush  off 
the  dirt,  we  notice  a  gritty  feeling.  This  is  due  to  bits 
of  rock  in  the  soil.  Study  the  soil  with  the  eye,  and 
you  may  not  see  the  tiny  bits  of  rock;  but  rub  it 
against  a  piece  of  glass,  and  the  hard  bits  will  scratch. 
Even  fine,  loamy  and  clay  soils,  when  examined  with 
a  pocket-lens  or  microscope,  will  be  found  to  be  com 
posed  of  tiny  fragments  of  mineral  or  rock. 

The  stream  grinds  the  soil  from  rocks,  and  carries 
its  load  onward  until  it  fills  the  level  land  near  its 
mouth,  and  makes  it  very  fertile. 

)  You  may  notice  iu  the  bottom  of  a  creek  pebbles 
that  have  been  rounded  and  worn  smooth,  like  those 
in  the  picture,  by  being  rolled  about,  thus  grinding  off  tiny 
bits,  which  go  to  build  up  the  soil  on  the  flood-plains.    Thus 


the  deltas  are  formed,  that  you  will  read  about,  at  the  mouths 
of  some  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  world. 


The  bed  of  a  stream  at  low  water,  revealing  the  rounded  pebbles  that  have  been 
worn  and  smoothed  by  being  rolled  about,  thus  grinding  off  tiny  bits  which 
later  are  built  into  the  flood-plains. 


Many  of  the  most  fertile  lands  are  plains  that  have  been 
flooded,  and  when  the  water  receded,  left  rich  layers  of  soil. 

Sometimes  scattered  through  the  soil  are  pebbles  and 
rocks  different  from  the  bed-rock  of  the  country.  The  soil 
in  a  large  part  of  our  country  is  this  way.  Here  is  a  pic- 
ture showing  pebbles  and  rocks  in  the  soil. 

This  picture  represents  glacial  soil.    Agassiz,  the  scientist, 


Near  view  of  a  cut  in  glacial  soil,  gullied    by  the  rains,  and  with  numerous 
transported  pebbles  imbedded  in  the  rock  flour. 

says  that  a  long  time  ago  the  rocks  were  carried  to  this  seil 
by  living  glaciers.     The  glacier  is  a  great  icy  desert.     No 


14 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


quicker  to  re- 
spond to  changes 
in  temperature 
than  is  the  soil. 
In  the  spring  the 
air  is  warm  and 
the  soil  cold,  and 
the  rains  which 
fall  at  this  time 
are  warmed  by 
passing  through 
the  warm  air, 
and  in  sinking 
through  the  soil 
the  water  parts 
with  some  of  its 
heat.  Thus  the 
soil  is  made 
warmer.  In  the 
summer,  the  hot 
soil  is  affected  by 
the  cooler  rains, 
and  existing  soil 
conditions  made  more  favorable  for  plant  growth.  Thus 
soil  temperature  is  somewhat  regulated  by  the  rainfall.  A 
dark  soil  is  warmer  than  light-colored  soil.  You  will  make 
the  world  richer  by  studying  and  learning  to  use  the  soil. 


Map  showing  section  of  the  United  States  that  was  once  covered  by  ice,  and  glacial  drift  soil  thus  formed. 

life  of  any  kind  exists.     In  North  America  it  moved  out- 
ward in  all  directions  until  it  covered  much  of  the  conti- 
nent.    The  map  here  shows  how  this  ice-sheet  covered  the 
country.     When  the  ice  of  the  glacier  melted  away,  it  left 
only  signs  of  its  presence;   but  when  the  temperate- 
latitude  plants  grew  in  Greenland,  they  left  seeds, 
leaves,  and  tree  trunks,  which  have  been  imbedded  in 
the  rocks  as  fossils.     One  may  now  pick  the  leaves  of 
temperate-climate  trees  from  the  rocks  beneath  a  great 
ice-cap.     Nevertheless,  to  one  who  studies  them,  the 
signs  left  by  the  glacier  are  as  clear  proof  as  the  leaves 
and  seeds.      From   these  signs  we  know  that  the  climate 
has  changed  slowly,  but  we  have  not  yet  learned  why  it 
changed. 

The  soil  has  a  wonderful  story.  Most  people  live  and  die 
without  giving  it  a  thought.  It  is,  however,  very  useful, — 
1.  To  hold  plants  in  place;  2.  To  serve  as  a  source  of 
plant-food;  3.  To  act  as  a  reservoir  for  moisture;  4.  As  a 
storehouse  for  plant-food.  Soil,  in  order  to  be  of  value, 
must  have  moisture  and  air.  The  woods  furnish  a  good 
lesson.  Here  the  leaves  cover  the  soil  and  keep  it  moist, 
and  wild  flowers  and  weeds  grow  in  abundance.  The  top 
soil  must  be  left  loose,  or  it  will  not  produce.  If  you  have 
a  flower- pot  in  the  school-room,  you  must  not  only  water 
the  soil,  but  the  surface  must  be  kept  loose  and  mellow.  A 
rake  is  oftentimes  better  than  a  watering-pot  for  a  garden. 
In  a  field,  the  roots  of  clover  extend  into  the  soil  like  those 
shown  in  the  picture.  When  the  clover  dies,  the  roots 
make  the  soil  richer.  The  temperature  of  the  soil  has  much 
to  do  with  its  productiveness.  The  temperature  is  affected 
by  the  quantity  of  water  which  it  contains.  Thus  the  soil 
is  very  slow  to  become  warm  in  the  spring,  due  to  the  fact 
that  a  large  amount  of  water  must  be  evaporated.  A  well- 
drained  soil  is  thus  much  warmer.    The  atmosphere  is  much 


Clover  roots  extending  into  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  soil  ?  What  does  it  feed  ?  Describe  some  things  you  have 
seen  grow  in  the  soil.  Why  is  the  soil  of  deserts  worthless  ?  Where 
are  the  most  people  ?  What  starts  the  flowers  to  grow  P  Where  there 
is  not  enough  rain,  how  do  farmers  get  enough  water  to  make  things 
grow?  What  makes  the  water  in  a  river  muddy?  Have  you  ever 
taken  up  a  handful  of  soil  ?  What  did  you  observe  ?  Have  you  noticed 
the  pebbles  in  the  bed  of  streams  t  How  is  the  land  made  fertile  ? 
Did  you  notice  in  the  map  how  ice  once  covered  part  of  our  country, 
making  a  peculiar  kind  of  soil  ?  What  are  some  of  the  uses  of  soil  ? 
Does  some  soil  need  air?  Does  it  need  moisture?  Have  you  ever 
planted  a  flower  in  soil?  Did  you  have  to  loosen  the  soil  to  make  the 
plant  grow  ?  Have  you  ever  looked  at  the  roots  of  grass  ?  When  the 
roots  of  a  plant  die,  is  the  soil  richer  or  poorer? 

Composition  Work.  Write  a  composition  on  soil  as  you  have 
seen  it  in  your  yard. 


The  Story  of  the  Water. 


15 


'  *%Wm\\W^mMMM^^m\\\\\\\\\ 

f      f                                                                 w^mm*^  MJmmm  %*^mMmmmmmm\\                                                                                           Wm\mmmWmm\WW^^m\%.  V 

WW"                    —TIL.        i  ^^^^^^    ^^|                           *.  "V^ 

IUU|lvtUt[iLr          ^^-v  * 

A  Tray  ox  Pacific  Coast  Shells. 


THE  STORY  OF  THE  WATER. 


The  water  covers  a  large  part  of  the  earth's  surface.  It 
is  everywhere.  If  you  put  some  water  in  a  shallow  basin 
and  set  it  in  the  sun,  the  water  will  change  into  vapor  and 
float  away  in  the  air.  Vapor  also  rises  from  ponds,  lakes, 
brooks,  rivers,  and  oceans.  When  the  vapor  cools  enough, 
it  forms  the  clouds.  Fog  /., 
is  simply  a  cloud  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  When 
the  vapor  has  changed  into 
a  cloud  and  some  particles 
of  water  fall  through  the  air 
to  the  ground,  then  it  is  rain. 
Hail  is  frozen  rain.  When 
the  air  is  cold,  the  water 
freezes  into  crystals,  or 
flakes  of  snow.  Have  you 
ever  seen  the  treasures  of 
the  snow?  The  snow-flakes, 
if  carefully  examined ,  will  be 
found  to  be  very  beautiful. 
Water  sometimes  freezes, 
and  ice  is  formed.  In  the 
Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions 
there  is  perpetual  ice .  If  you 
will  examine  carefully,  you 


Diagram  Illustrating  liain  and  Snow  Fall. 


will  notice  that  the  top  of  the  water  freezes  first.  It  is  also 
interesting  to  notice  how  the  water  bubbles  up  from  a  spring. 
Sometimes  the  water  spouts  up  in  the  air  as  high  as  a  tree. 
This  kind  of  a  spring  is  called  a  geyser.  The  water  is  often 
boiling-hot,  a  proof  that  there  must  be  great  heat  where 

the  water  comes  from.  Peo- 
ple sometimes  bore  large, 
deep  holes  in  the  earth,  and 
water  spouts  out  in  such 
quantities  that  it  can  be  used 
to  irrigate  the  land.  Such 
wells  are  called  "artesian," 
a  name  derived  from  Artois, 
in  France,  where  these  wells 
were  first  bored. 

The  rivers,  brooks,  and 
streams  are  all  useful  and 
interesting,  but  the  greatest 
body  of  water  is  found  in  the 
oceans.  About  three  fourths 
of  all  the  surface  of  the  earth 
is  covered  by  water.  The 
Pacific,  the  Atlantic,  the 
Arctic,  the  Antarctic,  and 
the  Indian  oceans,  besides 


16 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


large  bodies  of  water  known  as  seas,  bays,  and  lakes  form 
the  water  surface  of  the  earth.     The  ocean  has  always  been 


The  Pathway  of  Commerce. 

the  pathway  of  commerce.     It  is  full  of  life.     Did  you  ever 
visit  the  sea-shore  and  watch  the  waves  roll  in?     Of  course 


you  have  taken  off  your  shoes  and  waded  just  as  far  out  as 
you  dared  go.  Did  you  notice  how  the  waves  washed  up 
the  seaweed?  how  they  rolled  back  the  pebbles  and  the 
sands?  how  the  waves  continually  wear  away  the  shores? 
In  some  places  great  caves  have  been  washed  out  by  the 
waves.  There  are  very  curious  things  in  the  bottom  of  the 
sea.  In  the  picture  you  may  see  a  tray  of  shells  gathered 
from  the  ocean.  The  poet  Holmes  once  wrote  a  beautiful 
poem  on  a  shell,  called  "The  Chambered  Nautilus."  Read 
it.  The  sea  is  five  miles  deep  in  some  places.  Sunlight 
does  not  go  very  far  down  in  the  sea,  so  that  it  is  in  dark- 
ness. Near  the  surface  of  the  sea  and  on  the  bottom  there 
are  many  kinds  of  fishes  and  other  creatures.1  There  are 
high  mountains  of  the  deep.  Take  away  all  the  water,  and 
the  ocean  bed  would  resemble  very  much  the  land  surface. 
There  is  much  of  the  land  surface  that  was  once  covered 
with  water.  The  water  in  the  ocean  is  different  from  that 
in  springs,  rivers,  and  lakes.  It  is  not  agreeable  to  the 
taste,  being  both  salt  and  bitter. 

QUESTIONS. 

If  you  put  water  in  a  basin  and  set  it  in  the  sun,  what  will  happen  ? 
AVhat  is  vapor  ?  What  is  fog  ?  Have  you  ever  examined  a  snow- 
flake  ?  What  is  a  geyser?  What  is  an  ocean  ?  How  much  of  the 
earth  is  covered  by  water  ?  Do  waves  of  the  ocean  wear  away  the 
land?  Is  the  sea  very  deep  ?  Name  some  of  the  creatures  that  live  in 
sea.     How  does  the  water  of  the  ocean  taste  ? 

Composition  Work.     Write  a  composition  on  water. 


THE  STORY  OF  THE  WEATHER. 


Man  has  conquered  almost  everything  but  the  weather. 
Storms,  cyclones,  and  sunshine  come  and  go  without  his 
consent.  Though  he  measures  the  wind,  predicts  the  rain- 
storm, and  knows  the  change  of  seasons,  yet  he  cannot 
order  rain  or  sunshine.  But  he  has  tried  to  conquer  the 
weather.  The  first  real  step  in  this  direction  was  the  inven- 
tion of  the  barometer1  several  centuries  ago.  The  United 
States  government  employs  upwards  of  two  hundred  people, 
and  spends  about  one  million  dollars  each  year,  in  making 
observations  of  the  weather. 

We  call  the  average  weather  or  temperature  of  a  country 
its  climate.  The  temperature  of  a  place  depends  mainly  on 
four  things:  the  sea,  the  mountains,  the  winds,  and  the 
nearness  to  the  equator.  The  equator  is  under  the  path  of 
the  sun.  The  sun  is  the  great  heat- giver;  so  the  hottest 
part  of  the  earth  is  at  or  near  the  equator. 

The  air  cools  as  the  height  above  the  sea- level  increases. 
Hence  the  tops  of  high  mountains  are  frequently  covered 
with  snow,  even  in  hot  countries.  So  when  it  is  warm  in 
the  valleys,  the  top  of  Mount  Rainier  is  covered  with  snow. 

Winds  which  blow  from  the  northeast  and  southeast 
toward  the  equator  are  called  trade  winds.  Over  the  Indian 
Ocean  the  wind  blows  toward  Asia  in  the  summer,  and  tow- 

1  Every  teacher  should  have  a  barometer  in  the  schoolroom,  and  ex- 
plain its  use  to  the  children.     This  is  an  important  lesson. 


ard  Africa  or  Australia  in  the  winter,  and  creates  monsoons. 
Beyond  the  trade  winds  are  variable  winds  extending  nearly 
to  the  polar  circles.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  west, 
northwest,  or  southeast.    All  these  winds  affect  the  climate. 


Photograph  of  the  Moon.    Taken  at  the  Lick  Observatory. 

The  waters  of  the  ocean  have  a  general  movement  on  the 
surface  like  the  winds  above  them.    The  Japan  current,  that 


The  Story  of  the  Weather.  —  The  Story  of  the  Earth. 


11 


crosses  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  Japan  to  the  western  coast  of 
North  America,  fills  with  moisture  and  warmth  the  winds 
of  Washington  and  other  Pacific  states.  The  Gulf  Stream 
of  the  Atlantic  does  the  same  for  the  climate  of  western 
Europe. 

The  wind  blowing  over  any  sheet  of  water  throws  the  sur- 
face into  waves.  Waves  depend  on  the  wind;  so  they  are 
irregular.  There  is  a  movement  of  the  water,  however, 
that  is  very  regular.  The  slow  rise  and  fall  of  the  sea  is 
called  the  tide.  The  moon  is  much  nearer  the  earth  than 
the  sun,  and  has  the  power  to  pull  the  water  so  as  to  cause 
high  tide  and  low  tide.  At  some  places  the  tide  rises  as 
high  as  fifty  feet.  The  winds  affect  only  the  surface  of  the 
water,  but  the  moon  causes  the  great  tidal  waves  which 
make  the  powerful  currents  rush  even  to  the  bottom  of  the 
sea. 

If  you  will  take  a  bucket  of  water  and  a  bucket  of  sand, 
and  place  them  side  by  side  in  the  sun,  on  the  morning  of 


a  hot  day,  at  noon  the  sand  will  be  much  hotter  than  the 
water.  Why?  Because  the  earth  takes  in  heat  much  faster 
than  water.  If  you  will  let  both  buckets  stand  until  mid- 
night, the  water  will  be  warmer  than  the  sand.  Why? 
Because  the  sand  throws  out  the  heat  it  has  taken  in  much 
faster  than  the  water.     It  cools  quicker. 

QUESTIONS. 

Have  you  ever  seen  a  barometer  ?  What  is  meant  by  climate  ?  Where 
is  the  equator  ?  Why  are  some  places  warmer  than  others  ?  Why  is 
there  snow  on  the  tops  of  high  mountains?  What  is  meant  by  trade 
winds  ?  What  are  monsoons  ?  Where  are  variable  winds  ?  Do  cur- 
rents in  the  ocean  affect  climate  ?  Why  is  the  coast  air  of  Washington 
warm  ?     Does  sand  get  warm  quicker  than  water  if  set  in  the  sun  ? 

Composition  Work.     Write  a  composition  about  the  weather. 

Suggestion  to  Teacher.  Have  pupils  make  a  record  of  the 
weather  each  day.  Use  such  terms  as  Cloudy,  Fair,  Eain,  Stormy, 
Cold,  Clear,  Windy,  Calm.  Have  a  pupil  write  his  record  on  the  black- 
board each  day.  If  you  have  access  to  reports  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau,  have  them  written  by  a  pupil  on  the  blackboard. 


THE  STORY  OF  THE  EARTH. 


The  earth  is  round.  For  a  long  time  people  believed  the 
earth  was  flat.  Columbus,  who  discovered  America,  taught 
that  it  was  round  like  a  ball.     Magellan  started  to  sail 


Around  the  World  with  Admiral  Dewey. 

Suggestion  to  Teacher.  —  Have  pupils  trace  on  the  black  line  of 
the  map  the  course  Admiral  Dewey  took  on  his  trip  around  the  world, 
starting  from  San  Francisco. 


around  the  earth  over  four  centuries  ago,  and  his  ship  was 
the  first  to  go  around  it.  The  map  on  this  page  shows  the 
course  Admiral  Dewey  took  when  he  sailed  around  the  earth. 
The  other  reasons  why  people  believe  the  earth  round  are : 
1.  Ships  sailing  from  port  disappear,  first  the  hull,  then 
the  lower  part  of  the  masts,  and  last  of  all,  the  top  of  the 
masts;  2.  The  shadow  which  the  earth  casts  upon  the  moon 
in  an  eclipse  is  always  round;  3.  People  have  traveled 
around  the  world  in  one  direction. 

Size  of  the  Earth.  In  form  the  earth  is  a  great  ball. 
The  distance  through  it  is  about  8,000  miles.  The  distance 
around  it  is  25,000  miles. 

Rotation  of  the  Earth.  The  axis  of  the  earth  is  an 
imaginary  line  through  its  center,  on  which  it  turns,  making 
the  revolution  once  in  twenty-four  hours.    The  ends  of  this 


The  Sun's  Rays  in  the  Different  Zones. 

axis  are  called  the  North  Pole  and  the  South  Pole.  North 
on  the  earth  is  towards  the  North  Pole;  south  is  towards 
the  South  Pole.  Half-way  between  north  and  south,  on  the 
side  where  the  sun  rises,  is  east,  and  similarly  on  the  side 
where  the  sun  sets  is  west.  North,  south,  east,  and  west 
are  called  the  points  of  the  compass.  A  direction  half-way 
between  north  and  east  is  northeast;  between  north  and 
west,  northwest;  between  south  and  east,  southeast,  etc. 


18 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Day  and  Night.     A  day  means  twenty-four  hours.    It 
also  means  the  length  of  time  that  any  place  on  the  earth  is 


Diagram   showing  the  Comparative  Length  of  Day  and  Night  in  the 
Annual  Movement  of  the  Earth  around  the  Sun. 

in  the  sunlight.  As  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis,  one  part  of  its 
surface  is  in  the  light,  and  the  other  part  is  in  the  shadow; 
hence  we  have  night  and  day.  If  you  use  a  globe,  you  can 
see  a  representation  of  the  poles  and  of  the  equator,  and 
many  other  interesting  things. 

The  Earth  and  the  Sun.    We  get  most  of  our  heat 

from  the  sun.  The  earth  moves  around  the  sun  every  365 
days.  The  sun  is  a  great  globe,  more  than  a  million  times 
larger  than  the  earth.  The  turning  of  the  earth  on  its  axis 
brings  that  part  of  the  earth  on  which  we  live  into  the  sun- 


6sr  days 

The  Earth  and  other  Planets  moving  in  their  Paths  around  the  Sun. 

light  and  darkness  alternately.  Thus  we  have  light  and  dark- 
ness, or  day  and  night.  We  say  the  sun  rises  in  the  east  and 
sets  in  the  west,  but  we  must  remember  that  it  only  seems 
so,  for  the  sun  is  fixed,  and  the  earth  turns  from  west  to 
east. 


The  Hemispheres.  As  the  earth  is  a  great  ball,  a 
globe,  an  apple,  an  orange,  or  a  croquet-ball  will  best  rep- 
resent it.  A  globe  cannot  be  made  to  represent  the  earth 
accurately,  for  the  earth  is  not  an  exact  sphere,  being  flat- 
tened a  little  at  the  poles.  One  half  of  the  globe  is  called  a 
hemisphere,  or  half  a  sphere.  Here  are  two  pictures  of 
hemispheres;  they  are  called  the  Western  Hemisphere  and 
the  Eastern  Hemisphere. 

Parallels  and  Meridians.     All  maps,  globes,  and 

drawings  have  lines  to  aid  us  in  describing  and  locating 
places,  distances,  etc.     The  circle  passing  through  the  earth 


Diagram  showing  Axis,  Meridians,  Parallels,  Etc. 

midway  between  the  poles  is  called  the  equator.  The  smaller 
circles  parallel  to  the  equator  are  called  parallels.  The 
half -circles  which  extend  from  the  poles  are  called  merid- 
ians. This  word  is  from  the  Latin,  and  means  mid-day. 
All  places  on  a  meridian  have  noon  at  the  same  time.  The 
circumference  of  every  circle  has  three  hundred  and  sixty 
equal  parts,  which  are  called  degrees.  Thus  the  circle  round 
the  earth  has  three  hundred  and  sixty  parts  or  degrees. 

Latitude  and  Longitude.  Latitude  is  the  distance 
north  or  south  of  the  equator,  measured  in  degrees.  Thus 
we  have  north  and  south  latitudes.  Longitude  is  the  dis- 
tance, in  degrees,  between  the  meridians  of  any  two  places. 
Greenwich,  near  London,  England,  is  where  the  prime 
("prime"  means  first)  meridian  is  located.  The  Royal 
Observatory  is  located  there.  In  the  United  States,  the 
meridian  of  Washington,  which  is  seventy  degrees  west  of 
Greenwich,  is  sometimes  used. 

Zones.  The  parallels  that  are  twenty-three  and  a  half 
degrees  from  the  equator  are  called  the  tropics.  The  Tropic 
of  Cancer  is  north  of  the  equator,  and  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn 
is  south  of  the  equator.  The  Arctic  circle  is  twenty-three 
and  a  half  degrees  from  the  North  Pole.  The  Antarctic 
circle  is  twenty-three  and  a  half  degrees  from  the  South 
Pole.  The  Torrid  Zone  is  a  belt  of  the  earth  between  the 
two  tropics.  Torrid  means  hot,  and  in  this  zone  is  the 
hottest  part  of  the  earth.  Frigid  means  cold;  so  the  zones 
that  are  near  the  poles  are  called  the  North  Frigid  Zone 
and  the  South  Frigid  Zone.  Temperate  is  a  word  that 
means  ' '  neither  hot  nor  cold  " ;  so  the  zones  that  are  be- 
tween the  Frigid  and  the  Torrid  zones  are  called  the  North 
Temperate  and  the  South  Temperate  zones.     It  will  aid  you 


The  Story  of  the  Earth. 


19 


to  remember  all  this,  if  you  will  draw  a  globe  and  locate 
these  poles,  the  equator,  the  parallels,  the  meridians,  the 
tropics   the  polar  circles,  the  zones. 


The  Arctic  Region,  showing  Unexplored  Territory. 


The  Antarctic  Region,  showing  Unexplored  Territory. 

The  Divisions  of  the  Globe.  The  earth  is  divided 
into  two  hemispheres:  the  Eastern,  known  as  the  Old 
World,  because  civilized  people  have  lived  on  it  for  thou- 


sands of  years.     The  Western  Hemisphere  is  known  as  the 
New  World,  because  it  was  not  discovered  until  1492. 

The  earth   is  divided  again    into  six  continents.     The 
Eastern  Hemisphere  has  within  its  borders  Europe,  Asia, 


Map  showing  the  Earth  in  its  relation  to  the  North  Pole, 
shows  the  main  water-shed. 


The  dark  line 


WESTERN  HEMISPHERES 


EASTERN  I 


»Outm   FPU 


Map  of  the  Two  Hemispheres,  showing  the  Zones. 


and  Africa.  The  new  geographies  usually  call  Europe  and 
Asia  by  the  term  ' '  Eurasia, ' '  because  they  form  a  con- 
tinuous body  of  land.  The  Western  Hemisphere  includes 
North  and  South  America.  The  sixth  continent  is  the  New 
Pacific,  called  Oceania,  or  Polynesia.  It  includes  Australia, 
the  Philippines,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  earth?  How  do  we  know  it  is  round? 
Who  sailed  around  it  recently  ?  What  is  the  size  of  the  earth  ?  What 
is  the  axis  of  the  earth?  Where  is  the  North  Pole?  the  South  Pole? 
Show  on  a  globe,  ball,  or  map  where  the  equator,  the  poles,  the 
meridian  lines,  the  zones,  and  the  parallels  are.  Show  the  directions 
east,  west,  south,  and  north  on  the  map.  Show  east,  north,  west,  and 
south  from  the  teacher's  desk.  Why  is  the  earth  in  darkness  part  of 
the  time  ?  Why  is  it  daylight  ?  Describe  the  sun .  Does  the  sun  rise 
in  the  east?  What  is  a  hemisphere?  How  many  hemispheres  are 
there?  Name  them.  What  is  meant  by  a  meridian? 
How  many  parts  are  there  in  a  circle  ?  What  is  longi- 
tude ?  What  is  latitude  ?  Show  longitude  and  latitude 
on  a  map.  Locate  Greenwich  on  a  map.  Describe  the 
Torrid  Zone.  What  does  ' '  torrid ' '  mean  ?  What  does 
"frigid"  mean?  What  does  "temperate"  mean? 
How  is  the  globe  divided?  On  which  hemisphere  do 
we  live?  What  is  meant  by  the  Old  World ?  What 
is  meant  by  the  New.  World?  Name  the  six  continents. 
Composition  Work.  Write  a  composition  about 
the  map  of  the  earth. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers,  it  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial that  you  use  a  globe.  'Even  if  you  cannot  get  a 
good  globe  for  the  schoolhouse,  buy  a  twenty-five  cent 
one.  If  you  cannot  get  even  a  cheap  one,  then  draw 
one  on  the  blackboard,  and  have  each  of  the  pupils  man- 
ufacture a  globe  from  clay,  papier-mach6,  a  croquet  - 
ball,  orange,  or  some  other  substance.  It  is  no  use  to 
proceed  with  the  study  of  geography  unless  the  child 
has  a  fair  understandiug  of  these  elementary  principles. 


22 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


THE  STORY  OF  LIFE. 


Life  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  There  is,  however, 
more  life  where  there  is  good  soil,  and  where  the  climate  is 
pleasant. 

Plants  grow  abundantly  in  good  soil,  and  where  there  is 
plenty  of  moisture.  The  regions  of  the  earth  near  the  poles 
are  too  cold  for  much  vegetation.  In  places  where  there  is 
little  heat,  there  is  a  dreary  field  of  ice  and  snow.  In  places 
where  there  is  but  little  rain,  there  is  a  dreary  field  of  brown 
earth,— a  desert. 

Forests.  Much  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth  is  cov- 
ered with  forests.  The  vegetation  of  the  forest  is  very 
dense.  Along  the  great  rivers  of  the  earth  in  the  tropical 
regions  there  are  great  forests  with  immense  trees.  In  the 
very  warm  and  rainy  countries,  vegetation  is  always  green. 
The  thick  undergrowth  makes  it  almost  impossible  to  travel; 
There  are  many  trees  here  that  do  not  grow  where  the  cli- 
mate is  cold,  —  the  bamboo,  mangrove,  mahogany,  and  rose- 
wood. The  pine,  hemlock,  and  spruce  grow  in  many  places 
in  our  country,  in  the  temperate  zone.  These  trees  bear 
cones,  and  have  small,  narrow  leaves,  which  remain  on  the 
trees  during  the  winter.  The  oak,  ash,  chestnut,  walnut, 
maple,  poplar,  beech,  and  elm  are  among  the  most  familiar 


trees  of  the  temperate  zone.  They  are  deciduous  trees, — 
that  is,  their  leaves  fall  in  autumn  and  come  again  in  the 
spring.  If  you  will  examine  the  charts  of  vegetation,  you 
will  learn  about  the  distribution  of  plants  in  all  parts  of 
the  globe 

QUESTIONS. 

Where  is  the  most  life  found?  Why  does  not  vegetation  grow  near 
the  poles  ?  What  is  a  desert  ?  What  is  a  forest  ?  Where  do  the  great 
forests  growf  Name  some  of  the  trees  that  grow  where  the  climate  is 
warm.     Name  trees  of  the  temperate  climate. 

Suggestions  to  Teacher.  Ask  questions  in  reference  to  location 
of  plants  on  vegetation  charts.  Have  children  make  a  chart  of  the 
plants,  trees,  etc.,  that  grow  in  their  locality. 

Prairies.  The  great  plains  of  the  United  States,  called 
prairies,  the  plains  of  northwestern  Europe,  called  steppes, 
the  plains  of  South  America,  called  pampas,  are  rich  in 
grass  lands.  They  are  too  dry  for  large  trees,  but  shrubs 
grow  instead. 

Story  of  the  Animals.  Animals  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  globe.  In  the  United  States,  wild  animals  are  no 
longer  as  numerous  as  formerly.  Wherever  there  are  many 
people,  the  wild  animals  disappear.  The  horse,  cow,  dog, 
pig,  sheep,  and  other  domestic  animals  grow  more  plentiful. 


The  Story  of  Life. 


23 


In  the  torrid  zone  there  are  many  large  and  fierce  animals, 
among  them  being  the  lion,  leopard,  tiger,  elephant,  rhino- 
ceros, and  hyena.  Huge  serpents,  crocodiles,  and  alligators 
are  also  found.  There  are  also  monkeys,  birds  of  beau- 
tiful plumage,  and  large  insects. 

In  the  temperate  zones  there  are  wolves  and  bears.  There 
are  at  least  seven  kinds  of  bears.  The  birds,  squirrels, 
and  reptiles  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  torrid  zone. 

In  the  frigid  zones  the  animals  have  warm  furs.  The 
otter,  beaver,  seal,  and  walrus  are  well  known.  There  are 
few  domestic  animals,  the  principal  one  being  the  reindeer. 

QUESTIONS. 

Name  some  of  the  wild  animals  of  the  torrid  zone.  What  is  said  of 
the  birds?  Name  some  animals  of  the  temperate  zone.  How  many 
kinds  of  bears  are  there  ?  What  kind  of  animals  are  there  in  the  frigid 
zone?     Name  them.     Name  the  principal  domestic  animal. 

Suggestion  to  Teacher.  Have  the  children  give  you  stories  about 
animals  they  know,  oral  and  written. 

Story  of  the  People.     You  have  no  doubt  seen  people 

of  each  race  of  man-  

kind.  The  negro  is 
a  black  man;  the 
Indian,  a  red  man; 
the  Chinese,  a  yellow 
man;  the  Malay,  a 
brown  man;  and  the 
Caucasian,  a  white 
man. 

These  races  at  one 
time  belonged  almost 
exclusively  to  certain 
parts  of  the  world. 
But     railroads      and 


The  Indian  or  Red  Race 

steamships  have  distributed  the  races  to  all 

parts  of  the  earth. 
In  every  city  of  any 
size,  you  may  see 
the  five  different 
races.  The  princi- 
pal home  of  the 
black  race  is  in 
Africa.  Their  skin 
is  black,  lips  thick, 
and  hair  black  and 
woolly. 

In  eastern  Asia 
and  Japan  the  peo- 
ple of  the  Mongo- 
lian or  yellow  race 
live.  .They  have  a 
yellow  skin  and 
narrow,  almond- 
shaped  eyes.  The 
brown  race  are 
known  as  Malays. 
The  Malay  or  Brown  Race.  They  live  in  parts 


William  T.  Harris,  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education. 


The  Lion. 

of  Asia,  Madagascar,  the  East  Indies,  and  in  the  islands  of 

the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  Indian  or  red  race  includes  the  Eskimos  and  American 
-  ,- —  .  Indians.  It  is  a  race 
that  is  gradually  dy- 
ing out.  The  skin  is 
reddish-brown,  and 
the  hair  coarse  and 
straight. 

The  Caucasian  or 
white  race  is  the  most 
powerful  of  all  the 
races.  About  half 
the  people  in  the 
world  belong  to  this 
race.  Europe,  south- 
western Asia,    north-  The  Chinese  or  Yellow  Race. 

ern  and  southern  Africa,  North  America, 
South  America,  Australia,  and  many  other  parts  of  the 
globe  are  now  inhabited  by  the  white  race.  The  white 
race  is  also  gradually  occupying  more  territory,  and  the 
other  races  less. 

QUESTIONS. 
How  many  races. are  there  ?     Name  them.     Describe  the  black  race. 
The  yellow  race.     The  red  race.     The  white  race. 


The  brown  race. 


THE  STORY  OF  PROGRESS. 

The  people  who  live  by  hunting,  fishing,  and  gathering 
fruits  and  other  edibles  that  grow  without  cultivation,  are 
called  savages.  They  have  no  fixed  home,  and  live  in  caves, 
sheltered  nooks,  or  rude  huts. 

The  people  who  use  animals  for 
domestic  purposes,  till  the  soil,  live 
according  to  the  rule  of  the  tribe, 
and  wander  from  place  to  place,  are 
called  barbarians. 

The  people  who  have  schools, 
pleasant  homes,  arts,  sciences, 
manufactures,  and  comforts  of  life 
are  said  to  be  civilized.  The  Negro  or  Black  Race. 


24 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


THE  STORY  OF  OCCUPATIONS. 

Civilized    people 


Pacific  Coast  Condor. 


have 
many  occupations:  — 

1.  Farming. 

2.  Raising  horses,  cat- 
tle, and  sheep. 

3.  Mining. 

4.  Hunting  and  fishing. 

5.  Lumbering. 

6.  Manufacturing,  such 
as  making  cloth,  flour,  su- 
gar, shingles,  books,  hard- 
ware, drugs,  etc. 

7.  Transportation,  such 
as  railroading,  steamship 
lines,  and  staging. 

8.  Commerce. 

9.  Professional  life; 
such  as  lawyers,  doctors, 
ministers,  school  teachers. 


THE  STORY  OF  GOVERNMENT. 

Until  all  men  live  as  brothers,  and  follow  the  Golden 
Rule,  laws  to  punish  the  wrong-doer  and  to  protect  the 
weak  must  exist.  Rules  are  necessary  in  a  large  school ;  so 
laws  are  necessary  in  a  community.  A  law  is  simply  a  rule 
which  everybody  must  observe.  If  you  break  the  law,  pun- 
ishment follows.  Laws  are  not  necessary  with  savage  peo- 
ple, the  chief  being  the  law,  but  civilized  communities  have 
many  laws,  and  officers  to  enforce  them.  A  nation  that 
elects  its  officers,  law-makers,  and  president,  is  a  republic. 
The  United  States,  France,  and  many  of  the  countries  of 
South  America  are  republics.  A  monarchy  is  a  government 
under  the  control  of  a  supreme  ruler.  The  monarch  who 
has  no  laws  to  limit  his  authority  is  an  absolute  monarch. 


4  I  ,.        J- 

"•""j 

BS  5!  !L  m   '         /        ;~* 

|rJ^.  j?7 

\^1 

15   Wd&Kk 

Interior  View  of  Paper-mill,  Everett,  Washington. 

Where  the  ruler's  power  is  limited  by  law,  then  there  ex- 
ists a  limited  monarchy.  Many  of  the  countries  of  Europe 
are  limited  monarchies. 

THE  STORY  OF  RELIGION. 

The  Christian  religion  prevails  in  the  leading  nations  of 
the  world,  Europe,   America,  and  parts  of  Asia,  Africa, 


and  South  America,  and  the  islands  of  the  sea.  The  Cath- 
olic, Protestant,  and  the  Greek  Orthodox  churches  are  the 
principal  branches.  The  Christian  religion  has  furnished 
to  the  world  many  of  its  finest  buildings,  and  high  exam- 
ples of  ideal  manhood  and  womanhood.  About  one  fourth 
of  the  human  race  professes  Christianity. 


The  Twin  Palms. 

Buddhism  teaches  charity  and  kindness,  and  was  founded 
before  Christ,  by  Buddha.  About  one  third  of  the  human 
race  professes  this  religion. 

Brahmanism  is  preferred  by  the  people  of  Southern  Asia. 
It  is  a  religion  of  castes. 

Mohammedanism  was  founded  by  Mohammed,  and  their 
Scriptures  are  called  the  Koran.  Northern  Africa  and  south- 
ern Asia  is  the  seat  of  this  belief. 

The  Jews  believe  in  one  God,  and  the  Old  Testament  is 
a  record  of  their  ancient  religion  and  political  history. 
The  religion  was  proclaimed  by  Abraham  over  4,000  years 
ago.     The  Jews  are  found  in  every  civilized  country. 

The  pagans  belong  to  the  most  ignorant  tribes.  They 
worship  idols  of  wood  and  stone. 

QUESTIONS. 

Define  what  is  meant  by  savages.  Who  are  the  barbarians?  What 
is  meant  by  civilized  people?  Name  some  of  the  occupations  of  the 
people?  What  is  meant  by  commerce?  What  is  meant  by  professional 
life?  What  is  meant  by  manufactures?  What  is  meant  by  govern- 
ment? What  is  a  republic?  What  is  an  absolute  monarchy?  Describe 
a  limited  monarchy.  Describe  the  Christian  religion.  Define  Moham- 
medanism. Define  paganism.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  Jewish 
religion. 


LOCAL  AND  STRUCTURAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


MAP-SKETCHING 

Direction.  Have  the  pupil  stand  at  the  teacher's  desk  and  point 
out  north,  south,  east,  and  west  in  the  schoolroom.  Have  them  locate 
the  same  points  from  the  school -yard  and  from  their  homes.  Develop 
distance  and  area  from  the  schoolroom  and  the  school-yard.  Drill  the 
children  until  there  is  no  uncertainty  about  the  length  of  a  mile;  also, 
develop  the  correct  idea  of  a  square  mile. 

Field  Work.  This  should  begin  with  the  study  of  a  handful  of 
soil,  the  observation  of  a  brook,  a  river,  a  mountain,  a  valley,  a  hill, 
a  lake,  and  all  the  various  forms  of  a  land  surface  in  your  school  dis- 
trict. A  lesson  not  found  in  books  is  often  worth  more  than  a  whole 
chapter  of  the  text-book. 

Relief  Maps.  The  natural  inclination  of  the  child  is  to  play  in 
the  soil  around  home.  This  play  at  school  should  have  intelligent 
direction.  Supervise  the  building,  in  the  sand  or  clay  of  the  school- 
ground,  of  the  different  forms  of  the  earth's  surface.  A  relief  map  of 
the  school-grounds,  showing  a  river,  a  lake,  a  mountain,  or  an  island, 
will  cause  a  child  to  do  some  intelligent  thinking  when  it  comes  to 
studying  the  geography  of  the  world.  If  you  are  fortunate,  and  have 
at  or  near  your  schoolhouse  the  form  of  the  earth's  surface,  then  field 
work  will  be  more  effective  than  the  relief  maps. 

Outline  for  the  Study  Of  a  County.  1.  Boundary;  2.  Moun- 
tains; 3.  Elvers;  4.  Lakes;  5.  People;  6.  Cities  and  towns;  7.  Ani- 
mals; 8.  Plants;  9.  Soils;  10.  The  weather;  11.  Products;  12.  In- 
dustries; 13.  Commerce;  14.  Government  of  the  school  district,  the 
township,  and  the  county. 

The  primary  object  of  map-sketching  is  to  gain  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  map  itself,  its  general  proportions,  its 
highlands  and  lowlands,  its  slopes  and  rivers.  The  placing 
of  cities,  products,  railroads,  mountains,  etc.,  will  naturally 
follow  this  knowledge.  Exactness  has  no  place  in  map- 
sketching.  Great  accuracy  and  close  attention  to  details 
are  fatal  to  the  general  grasp  of  the  map  as  a  whole.  These 
must  be  sacrificed  to  the  greater  truth  of  general  propor- 
tion. In  fact,  everything  that  tends  to  draw  the  mind  from 
the  map   as  a  whole   must  be  eliminated. 


The  one  warning  in  map- sketching  is,  that  we  must  not  be 
drawn  away  horn  the  central  idea  —  the  map  itself — by  de- 
tails. We  must  not  let  the  indentations  of  bays  draw  our 
mind  from  the  general  trend  of  the  coast ;  we  must  not  let  lit- 
tle irregularities  of  the  shore  line  make  us  lose  sight  of  the 
general  shape  of  the  bay;  we  must  not  let  the  little  crooks 
in  the  river  draw  our  attention  from  the  general  direction 


MA? 

of  the  stream;  we  must  not  see  the  high  mountains,  and 
not  the  great  trend  of  the  slopes.  We  must  see  the  whole 
before  the  part;  we  must  work  from  the  large  to  the  small; 
from  the  mass  to  the  detail. 

For  example,  the  state  of  Washington  in  general  shape 
is  that  of  a  rectangle,  a  little  more  than  one  and  a  half  times 
longer  than  wide .  ( Map  1 . )  This  is  the  most  important  point 
of  all,  because  it  relates  to  the  state  as  a  whole.  The  next  in 
importance  is  the  relative  proportion  of  that  part  occupied 
by  Puget  Sound  and  its  connecting  waters.  Choose  the 
poiut  A  about  one  quarter  of  the  side,  and  cut  out  a  rec- 
tangle of  about  the  same  proportion  as  the  whole  state. 


25 


The  lower  point  of  the  sound  marked  B  is  a  little  over 
half-way. 

Locate  the  points  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  and  H. 

Map  2  should  be  memorized  the  same  as  a  piece  of  prose 
or  poetry,  and  the  process  of  memorizing  is  the  same;  viz., 
repetition.     To  memorize  Map  2,  draw  it  once,  twice,  or 


26 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


even  three  times,  until  the  general  proportions  and  leading 
points  are  learned.  An  average  class  can  do  this  rapidly 
under  the  direction  of  one  who  has  already  mastered  it. 

Map  2  is  the  map  to  use  for  study,  but  if  a  more  elab- 
orate one  is  desired,  Map  3  may  be  used.  Map  3  will 
naturally  follow  Map  2.  After  the  main  proportions  are 
established,  the  details  very  easily  drop  into  place. 

A  sketch  map  is  useless  unless  it  is  used.  It  should  be 
used  freely  until  the  study  of  the  country  that  is  represented 
by  it  is  well  learned.  Do  not  use  an  elaborate  system  to 
represent  the  mountain  ranges.  Simply  use  the  side  of  the 
crayon  if  on  the  blackboard,  or  simply  blacken  with  the  end 
of  a  blunt  pencil  if  on  paper,  as  in  Map  5. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  print  names  on  maps.  It  is  better 
to  indicate  by  an  arbitrary  sign  whatever  is  being  studied. 

Keep  the  map  simple.  Do  not  try  to  indicate  more  than 
one  great  truth  at  a  time.  Confusion  will  follow  if  care  is 
not  taken  to  follow  this  'suggestion. 


Mw  S 


The  following  problems  will  explain  how  the  map  can  be 

used  in  the  daily  exercise  of  the  class.     Either  Maps  2  or  3 

may  be  used. 

MAP   PROBLEMS. 

1.  Draw  Map  2,  and  indicate  the  rivers.  (See  Map  3.)  2.  Draw 
Map  2,  and  indicate  the  highlands  and  lowlands.  (See  Map  4.)  3. 
Draw  Map  3,  and  indicate  the  principal  mountain  peaks  and  ranges. 
(See  Map  5.)  4.  Draw  Map  3,  and  indicate  the  principal  lakes.  5. 
Draw  Map  3,  and  indicate  the  principal  cities  and  railroads.  6.  Draw 
Map  3,  and  indicate  by  dots  the  density  of  the  population.  7.  Draw 
Map  2,  and  indicate  the  annual  rainfall  by  dark  and  light  shading.  The 
heavier  the  shade,  the  heavier  the  rainfall.  8.  Draw  Map  2,  and  indi- 
cate by  shading  with  a  red  pencil  whei-e  wheat  is  raised.  Oats.  Corn. 
Fruit.  9.  Draw  Map  2,  and  indicate  by  shading  where  the  forests  are 
found.  10.  Draw  Map  2,  and  indicate  by  shading  where  cattle  art- 
raised.  Sheep.  11.  Draw  Map  2,  and  indicate  with  a  blue  pencil  the 
fisheries.  12.  Draw  Map  2,  and  indicate  by  black  shading  where  coal 
is  found.  13.  Draw  Map  2,  and  indicate  by  a  cross  where  gold  and 
silver  are  found.     Iron.     Copper. 

Suggestion  to  Teacher.  The  pupils  must  know,  and  know  well, 
home  geography  before  taking  up  Washington  and  the  continents. 


Rear  View  of  the  Agricultural  College  and  School  of  Sciences,  Pullman,  Washington. 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  OF  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS,  FOR  TEACHERS'  USE. 


Direction 


j  1.  Northeast. 
1  2.  Northwest. 

Southeast. 

Southwest. 

3.  East. 

4.  West. 


2.  South 


(3.  Sc 
14.  S( 


Guides  to  Direction  j  9'  n 


Compass. 


Surface  Forms 


1.  Slope. 

2.  Hill. 

3.  Mountain. 

4.  Mountain  Range. 

5.  Mountain  System. 
1.  Land        6.  Valley, —  Basin. 

7.  Plain, —  Plateau. 

8.  Island. 

9.  Peninsula. 

10.  Cape. 

11.  Isthmus. 

1.  Lake. 

2.  River.  . 

[2.  Water    f"  g^er  System. 

4.  Gulf. 

5.  Strait. 

6.  Ocean. 


Soil 


1.  How  Made 


1.  Decayed  Vegetation. 

2.  Sun  and  Rain. 

3.  Floods. 

.  4.  Glacial  Soil. 


2.  Kinds  of   {* 

3.  The  Uses  of  j  2' 


Rich  or  Fertile. 
2.  Poor  or  Sterile. 


Plant  Food. 
Reservoir  for  Moisture. 


Climate 


U: 


Heat. 

Moisture. 


1.  Shape, — proof 

2.  Size 
1.  Daily 


The  Earth 
as  a  Whole 


1.  Circumference. 

2.  Diameter. 


3.  Motions 


Dav. 
Night. 

2 .  Yearly ,  —  how,  —  Seasons . 


y,—  how  j  2' 


4.  Hemispheres  \  2' 


Eastern. 
Western . 


(1.  Parallels  and  Meridians. 
I  5.  Globe  a  2.  Latitude  and  Longitude. 
(.3.  Zones. 


Life 


1.  Animals. 

2.  People. 

3.  Progress. 

4.  Occupation. 

5.  Government. 

6.  Religion. 


1.  Actual 


Study  of  Distances 


Map  Reading  for 


h. 


f  1.  Measuring. 

12. 


Judging. 


Arbitrary,  Scale, —  Computing. 


1.  Direction. 

2.  Distance. 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  WASHINGTON. 


Home  Geography 


9. 


Map  of  Schoolroom. 

Map  of  School  Yard. 

Distances  to  Local  Towns. 

Soil,     Slope,      Mountain,     Valley, 

River,  Lake,  etc. 
Boundary  of  School  District. 
Boundary  of  County. 
People,  Cities,  and  Towns. 
Animals,    Plants,  Soils,   Products, 
Industries,  Commerce,  Weather, 
Government. 
Map-sketching. 


1.  History. 

2.  Boundaries. 

3.  Area. 

4.  Mountains. 

5.  Forests. 

6.  Lakes. 

7.  Rivers. 

8.  Climate. 
The  State   i    9.  Soil. 

10.  Products. 

11.  Industries. 

12.  Commerce. 

13.  Education. 

14.  Counties. 

15.  Cities. 

16.  Animal  and  Plant  Life. 

17.  People. 


27 


THE  STORY  OF  WASHINGTON. 


Seattle. 


Washington  is  known  as  "  the  Evergreen  State."  It  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  on  November  11,  1889.  The  western 
boundary  is  the  Paeiflc  Ocean j  the  northern,  British  Colum- 
bia; the  southern,  Oregon;  the  eastern,  Idaho.  The  longest 
distance,  from  east  to  west,  is  about  350  miles.  The  greatest 
distance,  from  north  to  south,  is  about  200  miles.     Its  area 

is  69,994  square  miles.    It  contains  44,796,160  acres  of  land. 
>  f  l%~o 

0  /v~CL  HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

fcu.S  S  »    About  a  hundred  years  after  Columbus  discovered  America,  Juan 

de  Fuca  sailed  to  the  coast  of  Washington,  and  discovered  the  strait 

which  now  bears  his  name.     In  1787,  Captain  Robert  Gray,  of  Boston, 

sailed  along  the  west  coast  and  discovered  the  Columbia  River,  Grays 

Harbor,  Willapa  Harbor,  and  gave  the  United  States  a  claim  to  all  the 

northwest  territory  by  right  of  discovery.     In  1792,  Captain  Vancouver, 

the  English  navigator,  sailed  through  the  Strait  of  San  Juan  de  Fuca, 

and  named  Puget  Sound,  Admiralty  Inlet,   Hoods  Canal,  and  other 

places.      In  1805-06,   the  two 

great  students  of  geography — 

they  studied  from  nature,  not 

from  books  —  Lewis  and  Clarke 

crossed  the  Rocky    Mountains 

and  descended  the  Clearwater, 

Snake,  and  Columbia  rivers  to 

the    Pacific.      They  were  sent 

to    explore    the     country    by 

Thomas  Jefferson,  then  Presi- 
dent   of    the    United    States. 

Then  came  some  settlers,  both 

English   and   American.     The 

first    permanent  white  settle- 
ment was  made  at  Tumwater, 

near    Olympia.      Both     Great 

Britain  and  the  United  States 

claimed     the     territory.      Dr. 

Marcus    Whitman,    the    noted 

missionary,    made    a     famous 

midwinter  ride  from  near  where 

Walla  Walla  is  now  located,  to 


the  national  capital  at  Washington,  to  save  the  country  to  the  Ameri- 
cans. In  1846  the  boundary  lines  were  established,  and  in  1853  the 
territory  of  Washington  was  formed.  In  1889  a  new  star  was  added  to 
the  flag  to  represent  the  state  of  Washington. 

Mountains.  The  Cascade  Mountains  cross  the  state 
north  and  south,  a  little  west  of  the  center.  This  range 
is  of  volcanic  formation,  and  has  a  great  influence  on  the 
soil,  climate,  and  life  of  the  state.  There  are  several  noted 
peaks  in  this  range.  Mount  Rainier,1  also  called  Mount  Ta- 
coma,  according  to  recent  measurements,  is  14,526  feet  high; 
Mount  Adams,  12,470  feet;  Mount  Baker,  10,827  feet;  and 
Mount  St.  Helens,  10,000  feet.  The  Cascade  Range  forms 
the  great  water-shed  of  the  state.  On  the  eastern  side  the 
rivers  have  their  source  in  its  snowy  summits,  and  flow  into 
the  Columbia;  and  on  the  western  side,  the  Puyallup,  Nis- 
qually,  Chehalis,  Cowlitz,  Green,  and  Natchez  have  their 

headwaters  in  the  snow- 
fields  of  Mount  Rainier. 
Near  the  Pacific  Ocean  is 
the  Olympic  Range.  The 
average  altitude  is  about 
8,000  feet.  These  moun- 
tains are  heavily  timbered. 
All  the  mountain  peaks  of 
Washington  are  noted  for 
their  beautv.    In  1897  the 


Administration  Building,  University  of  Washington. 

29 


1  Department  of  the  In- 
terior, United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey,  Washington, 
D.C.,  February  20,  1900.— The 
name  "Rainier"  has  been 
adopted  by  the  United  States 
Board  on  Geographic  Names  for 
the  volcanic  peak  in  Washing- 
ton, in  preference  to  Tacoma. 
and  is  therefore  used  by  all 
the  government  departments. 
Henry  Gannett,  Chairman. 


30 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Views  of  Mountain  Peaks  in  Washington. 

1.  Mount  Rainier,  from  Tacoma.  2.  Top  of  Mount  St.  Helens,  showing  mouth  of  Columbia  River,  and  clouds  hanging  over  the  ocean. 

3.  Tatoosh  Range,  from  below  Camp  Muir,  on  Mount  Rainier,  showing  Mount  St.  Helens  in  the  distance.  4.  Mount  Adams,  as  seen  from  near  Portland. 


United  States  government  established  the  Olympic  forest 
reserve,  of  2,188,800  acres;  the  Washington  forest  reserve, 
of  3, 504, 240  acres;  the  Mount  Rainier  forest  reserve  (includ- 
ing the  Pacific  reserve,  created  1893),  of  2,234,880  acres.1 

1  The  oldest  roeks  of  the  state,  the  age  of  which  is  yet  to  be  deter- 
mined, consist  of  granites,  gneisses,  schists,  marbles,  and  other  meta- 
morphic  rocks,  forming  the  axis  or  backbone  of  the  Cascade  Range, 
and  broadening  sufficiently  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  to  extend 
practically  from  Mount  Baker  to  the  Idaho  line.  It  is  probable  that 
the  same  series  of  rocks  are  to  be  found  in  the  heart  of  the  Olympics, 
but  this  matter  must  be  authenticated.  Upon  the  flanks  of  the  rocks 
just  mentioned,  or  in  other  words,  forming  the  foothills  of  the  Cas- 
cades and  the  Olympics,  are  great  layers  of  sandstone,  conglomerates, 
and  shales,  containing  in  their  upper  portions  valuable  seams  of  coal. 
These  rocks  belong  to  the  Cretaceous  age,  and  are,  all  told,  many  thou- 
sands of  feet  in  thickness.  Lying  stratigraphically  above  the  last- 
mentioned  rocks,  and  extending  outwards  to  the  borders  of  the  state, 
are  the  rocks  which  were  the  last  to  be  made, —  The  Tertiary.  These 
rocks  show  considerable  diversity  when  followed  from  one  portion  of 
the  Btate  to  another.  About  Puget  Sound,  and  along  the  Pacific  border, 
they  are  practically  all  sedimentary  in  origin,  consisting  of  sandstones, 
conglomerates,  and  shales,  and,  like  the  Cretaceous,  carrying  valuable 
seams  of  coal.  The  Tertiary  rocks  of  the  southeastern  part  of  Wash- 
ington, however,  are  of  igneous  origin,  and  form  the  great  lava  plain 
of  that  portion  of  the  state.  This  lava  plain  has  an  average  thickness 
of  two  thotisand  feet,  and  is  made  up  of  layer  upon  layer  of  black  ba- 
saltic lava. 

The  last  event  of  prominence  in  the  geological  history  of  Washing- 
ton was  the  formation  of  a  giant  glacier  upon  the  summit  of  the  Cas- 
cades. This,  uniting  with  a  similar  glacier  from  the  highlands  of  British 
Columbia,  overspread  a  large  portion  of  Washington.  This  glacier  de- 
posited about  Puget  Sound  and  elsewhere  immense  quantities  of  gravels, 
sands,  and  clays.  — Professor  Henry  Landes,  University  of  Washington. 


Lakes.  Lake  Chelan  is  a  large  body  of  fresh  water. 
It  covers  an  area  of  sixty-five  square  miles.  It  is  a  pictu- 
resque lake,  and  is  located  north  of  the  center  of  the  state. 
Lake  Washington,  near  Seattle,  Lake  Cushman,  in  the  Olym- 
pic Mountains,  Medicine  Lake,  near  Spokane,  and  American 
Lake,  near  Tacoma,  are  some  of  the  most  noted  lakes. 

The  River  Systems.  There  are  many  rivers  in  Wash- 
ington. The  most  noted  is  the  Columbia,  which  enters  the 
state  not  far  from  its  eastern  border,  flows  to  the  north, 
then  west  and  south  through  a  chain  of  lakes,  receiving 
the  Okanogan  and  other  rivers.  Below  the  town  of  Pasco  it 
receives  the  Snake  River.  It  then  turns  west  and  forms  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  state  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Both 
the  Snake  and  the  Columbia  are  navigable  for  river  steamers. 
The  Snohomish  River,  in  western  Washington,  is  navigable 
for  a  number  of  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  Chehalis  is 
navigable  for  twenty  miles  up  from  Grays  Harbor.  The 
Spokane  River  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  falls. 

Puget  Sound.  This  is  the  most  remarkable  body  of 
water  on  the  west  coast  of  America.  It  has  a  shore  line  of 
1,992  miles.  The  main  body  of  water  is  117  miles  long  by 
8  miles  broad.  It  exerts  a  powerful  influence  on  the  rain- 
fall and  climate  of  the  state,  and  forms  an  inland  sea  of 
great  commercial  capacity. 


The  Story  of  Washington. 

■ 


31 


Illustrations  of  Industries  of  Eastern  and  Western  Washington. 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  WASHINGTON.     » 

General  Conditions.  It  is  said  that  "  for  equability 
and  mildness  of  climate,  absence  of  either  very  liot  or  very 
cold  waves,  and  freedom  from  destructive  tornados  or  cyclones, 
Washington  stands  foremost  among  the  favored  states  of  the 
American  Union."  This  equability  of  climate  is  due,  first, 
to  the  influence  of  the  ocean;  second,  to  the  direction  of 
the  prevailing  winds;  and  third,  to  the  relative  position  of 
the  mountain  ranges. 

The  Pacific  Ocean  and  Puget  Sound  are  great  equalizers 
of  temperature.  Their  tendency  is  to  retard  the  upward  or 
downward  movement  of  the  mercury  in  the  thermometer. 

For  this  reason  water  is  sometimes  placed  near  plants,  on  eold 
nights,  to  prevent  their  being  injured  by  frost.  Irrigating-ditehes  are 
often  left  open  for  the  same  purpose.  The  water  imparts  or  gives 
to  the  surrounding  air  a  part  of  its  heat,  which  prevents  it  from  be- 
coming as  cold  as  it  otherwise  would.  In  warm  weather,  lawns,  walks, 
and  streets  are  often  sprinkled,  not  only  to  prevent  dust,  but  also  to 
keep  the  air  from  becoming  very  warm.  The  reason  why  the  water 
keeps  the  air  cool,  or  prevents  it  from  becoming  very  warm,  is,  that  the 
heat  from  the  sun  is  occupied  in  evaporating  the  water, — that  is,  in 
drying  the  walks,  streets,  etc., — and  does  not  affect  the  air  while 
doing  so.     It  cannot  do  two  things  at  the  same  time. 

The  larger  the  ocean  or  body  of  water  that  borders  or 
enters  a  state,  the  less  likely  the  climate  is  to  change.  The 
influence  of  northern  latitude  upon  the  climate  of  Washing- 
ton is  neutralized  by  the  effect  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


Over  such  a  large  area  of  water  surface  the  climatic  conditions  are 
nearly  constant.  The  air  and  water  move  with  a  regularity  that  over- 
comes all  local  or  temporary  variations.  Especially  is  this  true  along 
the  course  of  the  Japan  current.  The  climate  of  Washington,  in  this 
particular,  only  illustrates  the  general  statement  that  all  states  or  coun- 
tries that  border  upon  large  bodies  of  water  have  a  more  equable  climate 
than  those  that  are  farther  inland. 

The  second  reason  why  Washington  has  such  a  mild  cli- 
mate is  due  to  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  They 
are  from  the  ocean. 

From  about  the  middle  of  September  to  the  middle  of  June,  they 
are  from  the  southwest.  During  the  remainder  of  the  year,  they  are 
from  the  northwest.  Here,  again,  Washington  is  favored.  Winds  from 
the  south  or  southwest  are  comparatively  warm.  They  blow  during  the 
winter  season.  The  northwest  winds  are  cool.  They  blow  along  the 
coast  during  the  summer.  This  illustrates  another  law :  all  winds  from 
the  southern  points  of  the  compass  are  comparatively  warm  winds,  while 
those  from  the  northern  points  are  cold. 

The  third  fact  that  has  to  be  considered  is  the  relative 
direction  of  the  mountain  ranges  to  the  course  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds.  The  Cascade  Range  extends  through  the 
state  from  north  to  south.  It  divides  it  into  two  sections, 
which  differ  greatly  in  climatic  conditions.  This  central 
range  is  paralleled  by  two  others,  one  upon  the  eastern  and 
the  other  upon  the  western  border.  Between  these  ranges 
there  are  two  great  basins,  or  valleys.  In  those  great  val- 
leys the  air  settles,  and  is  protected  by  the  bordering  moun- 
tains from  outside  disturbing  influences. 


32 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


These  three  conditions  partly  explain  why  the  climate  of 
Washington  is  so  equable;  why  it  is  so  free  from  violent 
storms,  or  great  extremes  of  heat  or  cold.  Nature  has  de- 
signed it  so.     It  cannot  well  be  otherwise. 

Having  stated  in  a  general  way  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  state 
at  large,  especially  in  reference  to  its  position,  topography,  and  sur- 
roundings, it  remains  now  to  note  in  detail  the  climate  of  each  section, 
both  east  and  west  of  the  dividing  mountains.  In  this  will  be  consid- 
ered separately  the  three  primary  factors  in  climate;  viz.,  the  tempera- 
lure,  the  humidity,  and  the  movements  of  the  atmosphere. 

I.    THE  CLIMATE  OF  EASTERN  WASHINGTON. 

The  Columbia  River  basin  slopes  toward  the  south.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  somewhat  sandy.  The  moun- 
tains upon  the  north,  as  well  as  those  upon  the  east  and 
west,  protect  it  from  outside  influences.  It  is  certainly  well 
arranged  and  suitably  inclined  to  receive  the  heat  of  the 
sun  and  to  have  a  moderately  equable  climate. 

1.  Temperature.  By  the  term  "temperature"  is 
meant  the  comparative  amount  of  heat  contained  in  the  air. 
It  varies  with  the  seasons,  and  also  with  the  time  of  day. 
The  height  of  the  land  and  the  direction  of  the  slope  influ- 
ence it  somewhat.  These  facts  will  be  applied  as  the  con- 
ditions suggest.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  eastern 
Washington  is  48.25  degrees. 

This  is  an  average  of  the  annual  temperature  of  fourteen  stations 
well  distributed  throughout  the  basin.  Kennewiek,  which  is  situated 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Yakima  and  Columbia  rivers,  has  a  mean 
annual  temperature  of  54.7  degrees, — the  highest  in  the  state.  At 
Hunters,  an  elevated  station  in  Stevens  County,  it  is  41.2  degrees, — 
the  lowest  mean,  not  only  in  eastern  Washington,  but  in  the  entire 
state. 

It  is  interesting  as  well  as  instructive  to  know  that  it  is  this  sea- 
sonal range  of  temperature  that  measures  the  life  as  well  as  the  products 
of  a  country. 

2.  Winds.  The  movements  of  the  atmosphere  are  called 
winds.  They  are  caused  by  the  difference  in  the  tempera- 
tures of  two  places.  The  movement  is  always  away  from 
the  colder  and  toward  the  warmer  place. 

Sometimes  the  air  is  forced  to  move  otherwise,  but  it  is  not  natural, 
any  more  than  it  would  be  for  water  to  flow  upwards. 

Applying  this  general  statement  to  the  temperature  con- 
ditions in  eastern  Washington,  it  should  be  expected  that 
the  general  direction  of  the  winds  would  be  from  the  north 
toward  the  south.  This  is  true,  especially  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  The  winds  are  from  the  summits  of  the  east- 
ern and  western  mountain  ranges,  as  well  as  from  the  north. 
During  the  winter,  they  are  from  the  south  and  southwest. 
They  are  forced  up  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  from  the 
ocean . 

The  winds  from  the  north  or  northeast  are  called  the  Walla  Walla 
winds.  They  are  cold,  dry  winds.  The  winds  from  the  south  or  south- 
west are  known  as  the  Chinook  winds.  These  are  warm,  moist  winds 
from  the  ocean.  Sometimes  these  two  winds  meet;  then  there  are 
variable  winds,  usually,  however,  of  short  duration.  The  velocity  of 
winds  depends  on  the  difference  in  temperature  between  two  places. 
That  difference  or  range  is  not  great;  therefore  the  winds  are  not  vio- 
lent nor  destructive. 

3.  Rainfall.  The  annual  rainfall  in  eastern  Washing- 
ton is  14. G6  inches.  This  is  the  average  of  sixteen  stations 
well  distributed  throughout  the  basin.  This  is  much  less 
than  one  half  of  the  average  annual  rainfall  of  the  state. 


This  fact  is  due  to  the  peculiar  physical  features  of  Eastern  Wash- 
ington, as  well  as  to  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  winds.  There 
seems  to  be  a  gradual  increase  in  the  rainfall  with  the  increase  of  lati- 
tude and  altitude.  That  is  to  say,  the  dryest  section  of  the  basin  is  in 
the  lowest  and  most  southern  half.  From  this  district,  which  is  made 
up  mostly  of  Yakima  County,  with  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  counties 
adjoining,  the  rainfall  increases  with  the  slope  on  either  side,  likewise 
toward  the  north. 

The  rainfall  is  much  greater  along  the  eastern  than  the  western 
slope.  To  illustrate,  Walla  Walla  is  about  the  same  distance  east  as 
Sunnyside  is  west  of  Kennewiek,  the  station  of  least  rainfall,  but  the 
rainfall  at  Walla  Walla  is  17.43  inches,  or  more  than  twice  that  at 
Sunnyside.  The  same  fact  may  be  further  illustrated  by  comparing 
Fort  Simcoe  with  Pomeroy,  or  Colfax  and  Pullman  with  Ellensburg. 
The  explanation  of  these  facts  is  found  in  the  general  law  that  the  rela- 
tive amount  of  moisture  in  the  air  increases  as  the  temperature  decreases, 
and  the  temperature  decreases  as  latitude  and  altitude  increase. 

The  reason  why  there  is  more  rainfall  east  than  west  of  the  Colum- 
bia River  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  Iho 
southwest.  They  come  from  the  ocean  heavily  laden  with  moisture, 
and  strike  the  mountains  upon  the  eastern  side. 

II.    THE  CLIMATE  OF  WESTERN  WASHINGTON. 

The  climate  of  this  section  is  noted  for  its  mildness.  The 
position  of  the  mountains,  the  nearness  of  the  ocean,  and 
the  direction  of  the  winds  are  its  chief  factors. 

The  mountains  upon  the  north  and  east  protect  it  from  cold  winds. 
Puget  Sound  enters  from  the  north,  and  covers  an  area  of  about  two 
thousand  square  miles.  This  great  water  surface  has  much  to  do  in 
maintaining  the  equability  of  the  climate.  The  prevailing  winds  are 
from  the  ocean,  where  the  temperature  does  not  vary  much. 

1.  Temperature.  The  variation  of  heat,  or  the  rising 
and  falling  of  the  mercury  in  the  thermometer,  is  not  as 
great  west  as  it  is  east  of  the  Cascades.  The  difference 
between  the  January  and  July  temperatures  is  nearly  twice 
as  much  in  the  eastern  as  in  the  western  part  of  the  state. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  of  western  Washington  is  a 
little  more  than  50  degrees. 

The  mean  temperature  for  January,  the  coldest  part  of  the  year,  is 
nearly  40  degrees,  or  about  8  degrees  above  freezing-point.  This  means 
that  "Jack  Frost"  does  not  visit  the  Sound  country  often;  that  the 
streams  are  not  obstructed  by  him.  The  grass  and  trees  are  always 
green,  and  the  flowers  bloom  out-of-doors  the  year  around.  The  mean 
temperature  for  July,  the  hottest  month,  is  61.7  degrees.  This  is  not 
as  warm  as  the  room  in  which  you  study.     See  thermometer. 

2.  Winds.  The  winds  of  western  Washington  are  quite 
constant.  They  are  never  violent.  In  countries  where  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  mercury  is  slight,  the  movements  of 
the  air  are  necessarily  slow.  This  is  particularly  the  case 
in  the  Puget  Sound  basin,  where  the  daily  and  seasonal 
ranges  are  not  great 

The  prevailing  winds  in  this  section  are  from  the  ocean, — that  is 
to  say,  they  come  from  the  southwest,  west,  and  northwest.  They 
are  regular  as  the  seasons.  The  southwest  winds  are  warm  and  moist, 
and  known  as  the  Chinooks.  During  the  summer  months  the  winds 
are  from  the  west  and  northwest.  They  are  dry  and  cool,  when  com- 
pared with  the  southwest  winds.  Occasionally  the  northeast  wind 
makes  its  way  across  the  mountains  into  western  Washington.  This  is 
seldom,  however.  It  is  never  welcomed,  unless  it  is  by  small  boys,  for 
it  is  cold  and  unpleasant.  When  it  mingles  with  the  warm,  humid  air  of 
the  Sound  basin,  it  often  causes  snow,  which  seems  to  be  out  of  place. 

Besides  the  regular  winds,  there  are,  especially  during  the  summer 
months,  mountain  and  valley  winds,  land  and  sea  breezes.  These  are, 
however,  diurnal  rather  than  annual,  and  confined  to  the  mountains 
and  coast. 


The  Story  of  Washington. 


33 


Mount  Rainier,  from  the  South. 


3.  Rainfall.  The  third  factor  in  the  make-up  of  cli- 
mate is  moisture.  All  air  contains  more  or  less  of  it,  in  the 
form  of  vapor.  The  amount  present  depends  largely  upon 
local  conditions,  such  as  the  nearness  of  large  bodies  of 
water,  the  direction  of  winds,  mountains,  ocean  currents, 
character  of  surface,  temperature,  etc. 

Western  Washington  is  favored  by  most  of  these  condi- 
tions, and  therefore  has  an  abundance  of  rainfall,  especially 
during  the  winter  season. 

The  annual  average  is  65.65  inches,  or  a  little  more  than  5  inches 
per  month.  This,  however,  is  never  abrupt  or  violent  in  its  descent. 
Nor  is  it  so  heavy  or  constant  as  to  interfere  with  the  every-day  life 
and  business  of  the  people.  Being  so  near  the  ocean,  the  atmosphere 
is  always  pure,  springlike,  and  balmy.  Another  fact  regarding  the 
rain  is,  that  it  falls  mostly  during  the  nights.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  relative  amount  of  moisture  increases  with  a  decrease  of  the 
temperature.  The  temperature  lowers  and  rises  with  the  sun;  besides, 
the  nights  in  winter  are  long.        f?*jL*,J    U     £aC{  *M-v*A 

SUMMARY.  9T^.- 

1.  Washington  has  one  of  the  most  equable  climates  of 
any  state  in  the  Union. 

2.  The  average  annual  tempera- 
ture for  the  state  is  about  50  degrees. 

3 .  The  average  an  nual  rainfall  for 
the  entire  state  is  about  40  inches. 
Of  this  amount,  14.6  inches  fall  east 
of  the  mountains,  and  65.6  inches 
west  of  them. 

4.  The  climate  of  Washington  is 
healthful.  Its  surface  varies  in  al- 
titude from  sea- level  to  15,000  feet, 
and  with  it,  its  climate,  from  perpet- 
ual spring  to  continual  winter. 

Mineral  Products.  Gold,  sil- 
ver, and  copper  are  found  in  many 
districts.  Coal  is  found  at  What- 
com, Fairhaven,  Issaquah,  Ren  ton, 
Franklin,  Black  Diamond,  Carbon- 
ado, Wilkeson,  and  Roslyn.  In  1898 
there  were  1,988,288  tons  produced 
in  the  state  of  Washington. 


Fine  granite  quarries  have  been  opened  near  Spokane, 
and  at  other  places  in  the  Cascade  Mountains.  Excellent 
sandstone  is  found  in  the  Puget  Sound  basin.  Important 
quarries  are  at  Tenino,  Wilkeson,  Fairhaven,  and  elsewhere. 

Valuable  clays  are  also  found  in  the  state,  suitable  for 
the  manufacture  of  brick,  pottery,  terra-cotta,  etc. 

The  Soil.  Just  as  there  are  natural  divisions  of  climate, 
so  there  are  natural  divisions  of  soil.  The  dense  forests  of 
western  Washington  have  formed  a  rich  soil.  The  decayed 
vegetation  has  enriched  the  soil  each  year.  The  forest  trees 
have  held  the  moisture,  so  that  a  rank  undergrowth  has 
sprung  up.  In  the  Swinomish  flats,  near  La  Conner,  where 
the  soil  was  once  flooded  by  the  tides,  and  where  the  farm- 
ers built  dikes,  the  crops  are  very  abundant.  The  mineral 
wealth  and  the  lumber  interests  have  largely  attracted  set- 
tlers, but  the  cultivation  of  the  fertile  soil  of  this  region 
will  soon  be  developed. 

Much  of  the  soil  east  of  the  Cascades  is  a  volcanic  ash. 
The  winds  blowing  from  the  sea,  passing  across  the  active 


Curious  Formations  near  Cape  Flattery. 


34 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Snoqualmie  Falls. 

voleanos  of  this  region,  carried  the  ashes  beyond  the  moun- 
tains, and  deposited  them  on  the  treeless  surface.  This  soil 
produces  abundant  crops.1 

There  is  also  a  sandy  loam  in  the  river  bottoms  of  the 
Yakima,  the  Walla  Walla,  and  the  Wenatchee.  When  these 
soils  are  irrigated,  great  crops  are  produced. 

The  Products.  The  great  wheat  belt  of  the  state  is 
in  eastern  Washington.      The  great  timber  belt  of  the  state 

'Soils  are  usually  divided  into  two  general  classes;  the  first  being 
the  "in  situ"  soils,  or  those  formed  in  the  plaee  where  they  are 
found;  the  second  are  the  "  removed  soils,"  or  those  which  have  been 
shifted  from  their  original  place  of  making.  Of  the  "in  situ"  soils, 
the  best  examples  in  Washington  are  those  of  the  great  lava  plains  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  state.  These  soils  are  of  great  depth, 
and  because  of  their  finely  powdered  character  and  proper  chemical 
composition,  are  of  great  fertility.  Among  the  removed  soils  we  have 
those  of  that  section  of  the  state  once  covered  by  glaciers,  as  well  as 
the  soil  of  the  broad  river  valleys,  such  as  are  common  about  the 
Sound.  The  glacial  soils  are,  of  course,  a  mixture  of  all  the  soils  tra- 
versed by  the  glacier  in  its  course.  If  they  do  not  contain  too  large  a 
percentage  of  coarse  gravel  and  sand,  they  are  quite  productive.  The 
alluvial  soils  of  the  river  bottoms  are  of  very  fine  grain,  and,  as  all 
know,  of  gnat  fertility.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture has  characterized  the  soils  of  the  Skagit  Valley  as  being  the  most 
fertile  in  the  United  StateR. — Professor  Henry  Landes,  University  of 
Washington, 


is  in  western  Washington.1  The  great  mineral  region  is  in 
northern  Washington,  from  east  to  west.  Hops  of  a  su- 
perior quality  are  raised  in  many  parts  of  the  state.  The 
food-fishes  of  the  Puget  Sound  country  furnish  employ- 
ment to  thousands,  and  bring  rich  returns.  All  the  fruits 
of  the  temperate  zones  are  produced  in  abundance. 

Industries.  One  of  the  chief  industries  is  in  the  forests. 
There  are  over  six  hundred  different  plants  in  operation 
for  the  manufacture  of  lumber."  These  mills  manufacture 
shingles  and  lumber  for  ship-building,  wharves,  houses,  fur- 
niture, etc.  Lumber  alone  brings  an  income  to  the  citi- 
zens of  the  state  of  over  twelve  million  dollars  annually. 


1  The  growth  of  Washington  timber  is  remarkable  in  many  ways. 
For  one  thing,  it  has  single  trees  of  extraordinary  size*  A  KingCounty 
tree  recently  cut  measured  nine  feet  in  diameter  at  the  butt,  four  feet 
eight  inches  at  the  top,  was  186  feet  long,  and  scaled  64,000  feet  of 
clear  lumber,  without  knot  or  blemish.  From  a  cedar  log  twenty-two 
feet  long,  at  Woolley,  73,000  five  to  two  and  one  quarter  eighteen-inch 
Perfection  shingles  were  manufactured,  worth  upward  of  $150. 

The  red  fir  is  not  infrequently  250  feet  high,  the  pine  160  feet,  the 
silver  fir  150  feet,  the  black  spruce  150  feet,  white  cedar  100  feet,  and 
white  oak  70  feet.  Cedars  have  been  found  twenty-one  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  120  feet  high.  Trees  from  six  to  eight  feet  in  diameter  are 
frequently  seen  in  the  forests  of  this  region.  Some  of  the  logs  sawed 
are  of  great  girth,  and  sometimes  115  feet  long.  Estimates  as  to  the 
amount  of  standing  lumber  in  Washington  vary  all  the  way  from 
100,000,000,000  to  500,000,000,000  feet.  The  government  has,  during 
the  year  1898,  completed  an  investigation  under  an  expert  of  twenty- 
five  years'  experience  in  this  line  of  work,  who  places  the  standing 
timber  in  the  eighteen  counties  west  of  the  Cascades  at  103,504,376,000 
feet. 

The  Douglas  fir  not  only  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  in  point  of 
quantity,  but  it  comes  nearer  filling  all  the  requirements  of  the  builder, 
the  architect,  and  the  railroad  contractor  than  any  other  known  wood. 
Where  timber  of  large  dimensions  and  freedom  from  blemish  is  re- 
quired, it  is  in  demand  all  over  the  world. 

Tests  made  by  the  division  of  forestry,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  on  various  species  of  cone-bearing  trees,  established 
the  superiority  of  Douglas  fir  to  all  others. 

1  The  Bellingham  Bay  Improvement  Company,  of  New  Whatcom, 
Washington,  operates  a  saw-mill  on  Bellingham  Bay.  The  mill  has 
a  capacity  of  30,000  feet  of  lumber  per  hour,  or  720,000  feet  per  day. 
The  mill  employs  150  men  within  the  building,  besides  more  than  as 
many  more  in  the  yards  and  camps.  The  timber  cut  is  fir,  spruce, 
and  cedar.  The  logs  are  brought  in  for  about  thirty  miles  on  the  com- 
pany's private  railroad.  The  company  owns  several  four-mast  ocean 
schooners,  which  carry  the  lumber  to  ports  in  America,  South  America, 
Kurope,  and  Africa. 


The  Source  of  the  Snoqualmie  River. 


The  Story  of  Washington. 


35 


The  source  of  income  from  the  fisheries  is  over  six  mil- 
lion dollars  annually.      The  state  and  Federal  governments 
have  established  hatcheries,  where  salmon  are  hatched,  and 
put  into  streams.    Millions  of  dollars  have  been  expended 
for  new  and  improved  machinery  for  canning  salmon.1    Coal, 
gold,   silver,  copper,    and  other  mineral 
deposits  are  mined  successfully.    Spokane 
is  a  great  mining  center.     The  products 
of   the  farm    include    wheat,  hops,  hay, 
oats,  etc.,  and  the  total  income  is  about 
twenty  million  dollars   annually.     There 
are  over  119  creameries,  thirty-two  cheese 
factories,  a  condensed  milk  factory,  and  a 
beet-sugar    factory    in    the    state.      The 
people  are  also  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  leather,  flour,  paper,  books,   and 
of  nearly  everything  required  for  use  by 
the  citizens. 

Commerce.  The  advantages  of  great 
railroads  that  extend  across  the  continent, 
and  splendid  harbors  that  offer  an  open 
gateway  to  the  trade  of  the  world,  are 
among  the  commercial  features.  Seattle 
and  Tacoma  have  a  commanding  place  in 
the  commerce  of  the  new  Pacific.  These 
cities  on  Puget  Sound  are  the  nearest 
American  ports  to  Alaska,  the  great  empire  of  the  north. 
The}-  are  also  the  nearest  American  ports  to  Vladivostok,  the 
terminus  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad.  "  The  exports  and 

1  The  Pacific  American  Fisheries  Company  is  the  largest  plant  for 
canning  fish  in  the  world.  It  is  located  at  Fairhaven,  Washington. 
It  employs  3,500  men  during  the  busy  season,  from  June  to  October. 
The  plant  has  a  capacity  of  14,000  cases  daily,  or  a  total  of  672,000 
cans  daily.  During  the  season  of  1899,  the  plant  used  3,125,000  fish, 
each  fish  weighing  from  four  to  sixty  pounds.  The  fish  are  caught  in 
Puget  Sound  and  Alaskan  waters.  The  output  is  sold  in  Eastern  mar- 
kets, in  Europe,  and  in  the  Orient.  The  fish  are  put  up  in  cans,  are 
smoked,  pickled,  dried,  and  salted.  Each  method  has  several  differ- 
ent grades,  so  the  company  really  prepares  fish  in  thirty-seven  different 
ways  for  the  market.  The  main  building  in  Fairhaven  is  300  by  380 
feet  in  size.  The  company  also  works  an  oil-plant,  a  fertilizing-plant, 
an  ice-plant,  and  a  cold-storage  plant  in  connection  with  its  cannery. 
The  kind  of  fish  used  are  the  salmon,  halibut,  herring,  cod,  sturgeon, 
smelt,  principally.  They  also  ship  large  quantities  of  fresh  fish, 
frozen  in  ice,  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  company  owns 
about  forty  large  traps,  and  buys  the  fish  of  many  private  traps.  They 
also  own  many  large  scows,  tugs,  pile-drivers,  and  several  small  ves- 
sels that  rank  above  tugs.  A  good  trap  is  worth  as  much  as  $40,000, 
and  the  total  value  of  the  plant  is  probably  about  $2,000,000. 


imports  will  place  these  cities 
in  rank  with  the  great 
of  the  world.     Puget 
Sound  is  a  vast,  deep 
inland  sea,  and  forms 


/VOR.WAL 
AT      CMtNJY 


Chehalis. 


.NORMAL 

SCHOOL.  * 
<>.       AT     ^.L, 


a  fine  harbor  for 
the  ships  of  the 
world .  Prom  Ta- 
coma, coal,  lum- 
ber, and  wheat  are 
shipped  to  other 
lands,  and  great  ocean  steam- 
ers bring  tea  and  other  pro- 
ducts  of   the   Orient   to  our 

shores.  From  Bellingham  Bay,  lumber,  canned  salmon,  and 
coal  are  shipped  to  many  ports.  From  Everett,  shingles, 
lumber,  and  paper  are  sent  to  other  cities.  From  Seattle, 
wheat,  flour,  coal,  lumber,  canned  salmon,  and  merchandise 
of  every  description  are  sent  to  Alaska,  to  Asiatic  and  Euro- 
pean cities,  Coast  ports,  and  interior  towns.  The  commerce 
of  these  cities  is  rapidly  increasing. 

Education.  Washington  has  an  excellent  public  school 
system.  The  schools  are  under  the  control  of  a  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  a  state  board  of  education, 
and  county  superintendents.  Each  school  district  is  gov- 
erned by  a  local  board  of  directors.  The  State  University 
has  a  picturesque  location  in  the  suburbs  of  Seattle.  The 
State  Agricultural  College  and  School  of  Sciences  are  located 
at  Pullmau.  Excellent  state  normal  schools  are  located  at 
Ellensburg,  Cheney,  and  New  Whatcom.  The  state  also 
maintains  a  number  of  benevolent  and  reformatory  institu- 
tions. There  are  numerous  private  schools  and  colleges, 
which  are  well  supported. 


36 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


. 

MB»»t>«a.it  j&.  ■■  ^y  ^^"iffUMtihidhHl 

J.^-3* 

— =-*         -Si^    r'iril""_a^i 

--  ^""H  i    '  ^?ae 

Jr_ 

!P 

j^^^SSH 

• 

Divisions. 

as  follows:  — 

Name. 

1.  Adams. 

2.  Asotin. 

3.  Chelan. 

4.  Chehalis. 

5.  Clallam. 

6.  Clarke. 

7.  Columbia. 

8.  Cowlitz. 

9.  Douglas. 

10.  Ferry. 

11.  Franklin. 

12.  Garfield. 

13.  Island. 

14.  Jefferson. 

15.  King. 

16.  Kitsap. 

17.  Kittitas. 

18.  Klickitat. 


Exterior  Views  of  Paper  Mills  at  Everett. 
The  state  is  divided  into  thirty-six  counties, 


County  Seat. 
Ritzville. 
Asotin. 
Wenatehee. 
Montesano. 
Port  Angeles. 
Vancouver. 
Dayton. 
Kalama. 
Waterville. 
Republic. 
Pasco. 
Pomeroy. 
Coupeville. 
Port  Townsend. 
Seattle. 
Sidney. 
Ellensburg. 
Goldendale. 


Name. 

19.  Lewis. 

20.  Lincoln. 

21.  Mason. 

22.  Okanogan. 

23.  Pacific. 

24.  Pierce. 

25.  San  Juan. 

26.  Skagit. 

27.  Skamania. 

28.  Snohomish. 

29.  Spokane. 

30.  Stevens. 

31.  Thurston. 

32.  Wahkiakum. 

33.  Walla  Walla. 

34.  Whatcom. 

35.  Whitman. 

36.  Yakima. 


County  Seat. 
Chehalis. 
Davenport. 
Shelton. 
Conconully. 
South  Bend. 
Tacoma. 
Friday  Harbor. 
Mount  Vernon. 
Cascades. 
Everett. 
Spokane. 
Colville. 
Olympia. 
Cathlamet. 
Walla  Walla. 
New  Whatcom. 
Colfax. 
North  Yakima. 


Olympia,  the  capital  of  the  state,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Thurston  County,  is  well  situated  at  the  head  of  Puget 
Sound.  Steamers  connect  it  with  Tacoma,  Seattle,  and 
other  ports.  It  has  railroad  connections,  also.  The  court- 
House  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Northwest.  The  educa- 
tional advantages  are  excellent. 


Seattle,  during  the  last  few  years,  has  leaped  into  com- 
mercial importance.  It  is  the  largest  city  in  the  Northwest. 
Three  transcontinental  railways  enter  its  limits.  Its  ocean 
commerce  consists  of  several  Oriental  steamship  lines,  and 
a  fleet  of  vessels  engaged  in  traffic  with  Alaskan  ports,  be- 
sides many  steamers  which  ply  between  its  wharves  and 
various  other  Sound  and  coastwise  ports.  Seattle  has  many 
manufacturing  establishments.  The  exports  of  coal,  wheat, 
and  lumber  are  enormous.  Seattle  is  also  the  chief  ship- 
ping-point for  the  great  salmon  industries.  Its  location 
is  picturesque,  and  there  are  many  beautiful  residences, 
as  well  as  several  attractive  parks.  It  has  a  number  of  fine 
public  school  buildings,  including  the  buildings  of  the 
State  University, 
located  in  the  sub- 
urbs. The  impor- 
tant naval  station 
at  Port  Orchard, 
the  Public  Libra- 
ry, the  Museum 
of  the  University 
of  Washington, 
the    Assav-Office 


Lumber  Mills. 


and  the  factories  are 
among  the  many  inter- 
esting places  in  the  city 
that  furnish  instruction, 
and  which  school  chil- 
dren could  visit  with 
profit. 

Spokane  is  situated 
in  the  center  of  what  is 
called  the  Inland  Em- 
pire. It  is  in  the  ex- 
treme eastern  part  of  the  state,  about  four  hundred  miles 
from  Seattle  and  Tacoma.  Among  other  public  institutions, 
the  United  States  District  and  Circuit  courts,  the  Laud- 
Office,  the  Revenue  Office,  the  United  States  Depository, 
and  a  fine  army  post  are  located  here.  It  is  the  center 
of  a  -vast  territory,  and  its  commercial  relations  extend  to 
Montana,  Wyoming,  Utah,  Idaho,  Oregon,  British  Colum- 
bia, and  more  distant  points.  The  Spokane  River  runs 
through  the  center  of  the  city.     The  picturesque  Spokane 


The  Story  of  Washington. 


37 


Falls  are  within  the  limits  of  the  city.  The 
river  furnishes  water-power  for  a  number  of 
large  flour-mills,  the  electric  power-house, 
and  other  manufacturing  interests.  The 
city  contains  many  fine  public  buildings.  It 
is  the  center  of  a  great  mining  district;  gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  lead  being  the  principal 
products.  Spokane  is  also  the  gateway  to  a 
rich  agricultural  district.  The  great  flour- 
mills  ship  the  products  of  the  Palouse  wheat 
country  and  other  grain-growing  sections  to 
China  and  Japan.  Spokane  is  the  large;  t 
city  in  eastern  Washington,  and  is  the 
county  seat  of  Spokane  County. 

TaCOma  is  a  thriving  city  on  Puget 
Sound,  and  is  noted  for  its  railway  machine- 
shops,  its  manufacture,  and  large  exports 
trade  to  China  and  Japan,  and  other  cities 
of  the  New  Pacific.  The  imports  of  tea 
and  other  products  of  the  Orient  from  China 
and  Japan  are  large.  There  are  great  ware- 
houses and  grain-elevators.  Tacoma  has 
beautiful  parks,  excellent  schools,  hand- 
some residences,  a  healthful  climate,  a  mag- 
nificent court-house  and  public  buildings, 
and  other  interests  that  will  give  it  high 
rank  among  the  prosperous  cities  of  the 
West.- 

Walla  Walla  is  the  county  seat  of 
Walla  Walla  County,  and  is  the  oldest  town 
in  the  state.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  rich 
and  fertile  country.  It  is  a  prosperous 
trading  center.  It  has  excellent  schools, 
and  is  the  seat  of  Whitman  College  and 
other  educational  institutions. 

Ellensburg  is  the  county  seat  of  Kitti- 
tas County,  near  the  Cascade  Mountains.     Th 


The  Heart  of  the  Olympics. 


School  is  located  here.  The  surrounding 
country  is  a  rich  agricultural  district.  It 
is  also  the  center  of  an  extensive  mining 
region. 

North  Yakima,  the  county  seat  of  Ya- 
kima County,  is  a  prosperous  city,  and  lies 
in  the  center  of  a  fertile  farming  and  fruit 
section. 

New  Whatcom  is  the  county  seat  of 
Whatcom  County.  It  has  a  large  trade  in 
general  merchandise,  coal,  lumber,  fishing, 
etc.  The  State  Normal  School  is  located  on 
a  picturesque  hill  overlooking  Bellingham 
Bay. 

Everett  is  an  important  manufacturing 
center.  The  Everett  paper-mills  manufac- 
ture paper  for  Washington,  Oregon,  San 
Francisco,  and  many  other  places.         The 


Against  the  naming  sunset  sky 
The  Olympic's  serried  columns  lay, 

A  jagged,  purple,  sword-edge  huge. 
Broken  and  notched  in  desperate  fray 
Will  Mekethth. 


Legging  Scene  in  a  Puget  Sound  Forest. 


e  State  Normal 


paper  in  this  book  was    made  at  Everett. 
There  are  lumber  and  shingle  mills,  machine 
and  iron  shops,  etc. 

Vancouver',  the  county  seat  of  Clarke  County, 
on  the  Columbia  River,  was  founded  in  1828  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company.  It  is  the  headquarters  of 
the  Military  Department  of  the  Columbia.  Fruit- 
growing is  an  important  industry. 

ANIMAL  AND  PLANT  LIFE  IN  WASHINGTON. 

Animal  Life.  The  black  bear  is  frequently  seen  in  the 
woods.  Its  average  weight  is  about  three  hundred  pounds. 
It  climbs  small  trees  nearly  as  quickly  as  it  does  large  ones. 
It  takes  a  long  sleep  during  the  winter  months,  choosing  a 
deep  thicket  or  a  hollow  log  for  its  winter  home.  The  black 
bear  is  a  good  berry-picker.  It  is  also  an  excellent  fisher. 
Salmon  and  berries  are  its  principal  food. 

The  cougar  of  Washington  is  similar  to  the  panther  of  the 
Eastern  States.  It  is  of  a  tawny  color,  and  lives  upon  birds, 
rabbits,  deer,  and  other  small  animals.  It  sometimes  creates 
havoc  among  sheep.    Like  the  coyote,  it  is  a  great  howler. 

The  elk  or  wapiti,  the  wild  cat,  the  wild  goat,  and  the 
deer  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  mountain  ranges. 

The  Douglas  squirrel  is  very  plentiful.  It  has  long,  black 
whiskers,  strong,  sharp  claws,  roguish  eyes,  and  may  be  seen 
any  day  in  a  ramble  through  the  woods. 

The  blue  jay,  robin,  blackbird,  woodpecker,  yellowham- 


38 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


mer,  blue-bird,  swallow,  crow,  and  meadow 
lark,  are  among  the  various  kinds  of  birds 
found  in  the  Northwest. 

The  ruffled  grouse  inhabits  the  entire 
wooded  districts  of  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton. It  likes  to  perch  on  mossy  logs  and 
flap  its  wings.  In  the  summer  they  dust 
themselves  in  the  roadways  and  along  the 
edges  of  fields.  They  are  usually  found 
along  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers. 

Plant  Life.  The  salal  thrives  through- 
out entire  western  Washington.  It  is  from 
two  to  eight  feet  in  height.  The  bark  is 
reddish  brown,  while  the  branches  are  red 
when  exposed  to  the  sun.  It  has  evergreen 
leaves,  oval  in  form.  The  fruit  of  the  salal 
is  a  dark  purple  berry.  It  is  food  for  the  In- 
dians and  the  grouse.  The  rhododendron1 
is  the  state  flower  of  Washington.  Herbert  Bashford  describes  it  as 
follows:  "The  Greeks  called  it  the  rosebay,  and  it  belongs  to  the 
heath  family  of  plants.     This  shrub  has  evergreen  leaves  and  beauti- 


Spokane  tails. 


Chart  of  Puget  Sound.     United  States  Coast  Survey. 


ful  bell -shaped  flowers.  The  varieties  found  in  the  northwest  are  of 
various  colors,  and  in  the  Cascade  Mountains  there  is  a  rhododendron 
bearing  snow-white  flowers.  The  varieties  of  this  shrub  are  numbered 
by  the  hundred.  In  beauty  of  form  and  foliage,  its  many  colors,  and 
the  profusion  of  its  flowers,  no  other  shrub  equals  it.  They  are  exceed- 
ingly hardy,  and  can  be  taken  up  at  any  time  without  injury  to  them. 


!  Rhododendron,  of  the  order  Ericacea;.  Flowers,  in  close  terminal 
clusters,  from  large  scaly  bractedbuds;  corolla  bell-shaped,  five-lobed, 
and  often  irregular;  ten  stamens,  usually  bent  downward;  anthers 
short,  opening  by  terminal  pores;  pod  five-celled,  flve-valved,  and 
many-seeded. 


Even  while  they  are  in  full  bloom  they  may 
be  lifted  and  used  for  decorative  purposes, 
without  showing  in  the  slightest  degree  the 
effects  of  being  disturbed." 

QUESTIONS  ON  WASHINGTON. 

Why  is  Washington  called  "the  Ever- 
green State  "f  When  was  it  admitted  into 
the  Union?  Tell,  in  your  own  language, 
what  you  can  about  the  history  of  Washing- 
ton. What  is  the  longest  distance  from 
east  to  west?  From  north  to  south?  De- 
scribe the  mountains  of  Washington.  Tell 
about  the  Cascade  Range.  What  range 
forms  the  water-shed  of  the  state?  What 
is  meant  by  a  water- shed?  Name  some  of 
the  mountains  you  have  seen.  Where  is 
the  Olympic  Range?     Name  several  of  the 

important  lakes  of  Washington.      Where  is  Lake  Chelan?     Where   is 

Lake  Washington?     Describe  the  Columbia.     Describe  Puget  Sound. 

Explain  it  from  the  chart  given.     Name  several  of  the  navigable  rivers. 

Name  some  of  the  principal  rivers  of  Washington.     Name  three  natural 


A  Transfer  Steamer  on  the  Columbia  River. 

features  that  influence  the  climate  of  Washington.  Tell  how  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  influence  the  climate.  How  the  Japan  current  influ- 
ences the  climate.  What  is  meant  by  the  Chinook  winds?  Describe 
the  rainfall  of  Washington.  Describe  the  soil  of  Washington.  De- 
scribe the  winds  of  Washington.  What  is  said  about  the  soil  around 
La  Conner.  What  is  said  of  the  soil  east  of  the  Cascades?  Locate  the 
wheat  belt  of  the  state.  Locate  the  timber  belt.  The  mineral  region. 
What  is  said  about  the  fruits?  The  fishes?  What  is  the  principal 
industry  of  Washington?  What  is  said  about  the  canneries?  What 
is  a  hatchery?  Name  some  of  the  articles  that  are  manufactured  in 
Washington.  What  is  said  of  the  commerce  of  Washington?  What 
American  cities  are  nearest  the  ports  of  Alaska  and  Asia?  Name  the 
three  largest  cities  in  Washington?  For  what  is  each  one  noted? 
Where  is  the  University  of  Washington  located? 


Spokane  River. 


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40 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW. 


Questions  on  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Hemispheres,  to  be  Answered  from 
the  Maps  on  Pages  20  and  21. 
What  continents  are  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere f    What  continent  is  nearest  the  North 
Pole?     What  continent  is  nearest  the  South 
Pole?    Where  is  the  Atlantic  Ocean?    Where 
is  the  Pacific  Ocean?     In  what  direction  does 
the  great  river  of  South  America  flow?     Into 
what  ocean  does  it  empty?     Name  the  conti- 
nents of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.    What  con- 
tinents are  near  the  North  Pole?    What  con- 
tinents are  near  the  South  Pole? 

Suggestions  to  the  Teacher.  In  the 
study  of  the  map  of  Washington,  the  knowl- 
edge to  be  gained  is  merely  incidental ;  the 
primary  object  being  to  give  exercises  in 
map-reading,  so  that  the  children  may  be 
able  to  make  a  systematic  study  of  maps. 
Hold  pupils  to  this  work  until  they  read 
accurately  and  quickly  all  that  is  called  for 
by  the  questions.  It  is  not  designed  that 
the  answer  should  be  memorized. 

Questions  to  be  Answered  from  the  Map 
of  Washingon,  Page  26. 

Point  north  on  the  map.  South.  East. 
West.  Point  to  water.  Point  to  land.  Trace 
with  a  pencil  the  line  of  land  bordering  tin- 
water  What  name  do  you  give  it?  Point  to 
the  mountains,  and  name  them  Point  to  the 
harbors,  and  name  them.  Point  to  the  lakes, 
anil  name  them.  Point  out  three  rivers,  ami 
name  them  Where  is  the  source  of  each? 
Trace  each  to  its  mouth.  Tell  direction  of 
mouth  from  source.  Point  to  three  impor- 
tant towns  on  Puget  Sound.  Point  to  the 
three  largest  counties.  Name  them.  How 
can  you  tell  by  a  map  which  way  the  land 
slopes?  In  going  from  Seattle  to  Ellens- 
burg,  do  you  go  up  hill  or  down  hill  ?  From 
Pasco  to  Spokane?  Do  the  rivers  in  eastern 
Washington  run  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
rivers  in  western  Washington?  In  what  di- 
rection does  the  land  slope  between  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? 
How  many  counties  in  Washington?  Which 
is  the  largest?  Which  is  the  smallest?  Name 
the  counties  that  border  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
In  what  count*  Ag  the  capital  of  the  state 


Multnomah  Falls,  Oregon 


located?  In  what  counties  are  Ellensburg, 
Spokane,  Seattle,  and  Tacoma  located?  Name 
four  counties  that  are  noted  for  wheat -rais- 
ing. Name  four  counties  that  are  noted  for 
fruit-raising.  Trace  the  Columbia  River 
from  where  it  enters  the  state  until  it  empties 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Through  what  coun- 
ties does  it  pass?  What  great  range  of 
mountains  crosses  Washington  from  north 
to  south?  Name  the  principal  mountain 
peaks  in  Washington .  Locate  Cape  Flattery. 
Locate  the  Olympic  Mountains.  Locate 
Gray's  Harbor.  Willapa  Harbor.  Describe 
Puget  Sound.  Measure  Washington  from 
east  to  west  according  to  the  scale  of  statute 
miles.  From  north  to  south.  Measure  Spo- 
kane County  in  the  same  way.  Measure  the 
Columbia  River  from  where  it  enters  Wash- 
ington to  where  it  empties  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  using  the  scale  of  statute  miles. 
Washington  contains  69,994  square  miles. 
Its  population  in  1S90  was  349,390.  How 
many  people  to  the  square  mile?  Find  the 
rivers  that  flow  into  the  Columbia.  Find  the 
rivers  that  flow  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Find 
the  rivers  that  flow  into  Puget  Sound. 

Questions  on  the  Pictures. 
Describe  pictures  on  pages  13  and  14. 
Have  you  ever  seen  a  stream  where  the  peb- 
bles have  been  worn  round  and  smooth  by 
the  water?  Describe  the  map  on  page  14, 
showing  glacial  drift  soil .  Describe  the  dia- 
gram on  page  15,  illustrating  rain  and  snow- 
fall Is  the  altitude  of  perpetual  snow  above 
the  rain  clouds?  Describe  the  picture  on 
page  18,  showing  movements  of  the  earth 
around  the  sun.  Notice,  in  the  picture  of 
the  earth  and  other  planets  on  page  18,  the 
position  of  the  different  planets  from  the 
sun.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  figures 
on  the  circles.  In  the  study  of  Washington, 
pick  out  the  pictures  of  buildings  that  repre- 
sent schools  and  colleges,  and  locate  them. 
What  do  you  see  in  the  picture  of  Seattle  on 
page  27?  Tell  about  the  mountain  peaks  on 
page  28.  Describe  the  different  industries 
shown  on  page  29.  Examine  the  pictures  of 
natural  scenery  in  Washington.  Give,  in 
your  own  words,  a  description  of  the  most 
beautiful  natural  scene  you  have  observed. 


Mt. Aconcagua 

n.esit  Mt.Mc.  Kinloy 

20,464  ft. 

HMt.St.Eliai 
ie.000  n. 


Mt  Kosciusko 
-7,170  ft. 


Design  showing  Height  of  Mountains,  Sea-Level,  and  Depths  of  Oceans. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


This  continent  has  an  area  of  9,000,000  square  miles. 
Its  greatest  length,  from  north  to  south,  is  4,500  miles.    Its 


^^^^  «?*'  - 


Outline  Map  of  North  America. 

greatest  width  is  about  3,250  miles.  North  America  is  sepa- 
rated from  Asia  by  Bering  Strait,  only  40  miles  wide,  and 
less  than  300  feet  deep.  It  is  joined  to  South  America  by 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  28  miles  wide  and  250  feet  high. 

The  Mountains.  The  Rocky  Mountains  are  some- 
times called  the  backbone  of  the  continent.  They  form 
what  is  called  the  Great  Continental  Divide.  There  is  an 
abrupt  slope  to  the  Pacific,  and  a  long,  gentle  slope  toward 
the  Atlantic.  The  Sierra1  Nevada2  Mountains  extend  almost 
the  same  length  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  There  are  many 
lofty  peaks,  including  Mount  Whitney  and  Mount  Shasta. 
The  Coast  Range  lies  west  of  the  Sierras,  and  extends  from 
Lower  California  to  Alaska.  While  much  lower  than  the 
Sierras,  there  are  a  number  of  lofty  peaks.  The  highest 
mountain  peak  in  North  America  is  said  to  be  Mount  St. 
Elias,  in  Alaska.  West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  high- 
lands are  broken  by  numerous  mountain  ranges.  On  this 
highland  are  the  great  plateaus  of  Utah  and  Nevada .  The 
highland  or  plateau  region  extends  from  Mexico  to  Alaska. 


The  Atlantic  highlands  are  known  as  the  Appalachian  sys- 
tem, and  extend  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  nearly  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  highest  peaks  are  from  4,000  to 
8,000  feet.  This  system  also  forms  a  water-shed  or  water- 
parting.  The  rivers  flow  on  the  eastern  side  to  the  Atlantic, 
and  on  the  western  side  to  the  interior  of  the  continent.  A 
third  water-parting  extends  from  Labrador  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.    It  nowhere  exceeds  two  thousand  feet  in  height. 

VolcanOS  and  Earthquakes.  There  are  numerous 
active  volcanos  in  Mexico  and  Alaska.  There  are  none  east 
of  the  Rockies.  Earthquakes  are  frequent,  but  seldom 
violent. 

Lowlands.  The  great  central  plain  of  North  America 
extends  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rookies  to  the  western 
side  of  the  Appalachians,  and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  plains  in  the  world. 
There  are  small  plains  on  the  eastern  Atlantic  slope,  and 
on  the  Pacific  slope,  including  the  San  Joaquin,  Sacramento, 
and  Willamette  valleys. 

The  Political  Divisions.  North  America  is  divided 
into  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  Danish  America,  the  United 
States,  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West  India  Islands. 


1  Sierra,  a  saw.     •  Nevada,  snow. 


A  Native  Rubber-hunter,  Chiapa,  Rubber  Plantation,  Central  America. 


41 


42 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


DANISH  AMERICA. 

GREENLAND. 

Greenland  belongs  to  Denmark,  and  is  ruled  by  two 
governors  appointed  by  the  King.  Greenland  was  discov- 
ered by  the  Northmen  in  the  tenth  century.  Because  Green- 
land and  Iceland  belong  to  Denmark  they  are  called  Danish 
America.  Most  of  Greenland  is  covered  by  a  very  deep  ice- 
field. The  only  land  that  is  not  covered  is  along  the  coast, 
where  there  is  little  vegetation,— mosses,  lichens,  and  fir 
trees.  The  principal  industry  is  securing  seal  skins  and  seal 
blubber.  The  most  important  place  is  Godhaven.  The 
polar  bear,  the  musk-ox,   and  the  reindeer  are  found  in 

Greenland. 

ICELAND. 

There  are  many  geysers  and  volcanos  on  this  island.  It 
is  of  volcanic  origin.  The  most  famous  volcano  is  Mount 
Hekla.  Sheep,  cattle,  and  ponies  form  the  chief  wealth  of 
the  island.  There  are  some  cod- fisheries.  The  eider-duck 
and  seal  are  also  taken  in  large  numbers.  The  capital  is 
Reikiavik,  which  has  an  excellent  harbor. 

THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 

The  area  is  nearly  as  great  as  that  of  the  United  States. 
It  has  a  population  of  about  five  million  people.  It  is  gov- 
erned by  a  governor- general,  appointed  by  the  ruler  of  the 
British  Empire.  Each  province  has  its  own  parliament. 
There  is  also  a  general  parliament,  which  resembles  our 
Congress.  New  Brunswick  is  one  of  the  important  prov- 
inces.    Its  wealth  consists  of   lumber  ana  fisheries.     St. 


John,  on  the  St.  John  River,  is  the 
principal  city.  Nova  Scotia  is  an 
important  province.  Cape  Breton 
belongs  to  it.  Halifax,  the  capital, 
is  the  naval  station  of  the  British 
Empire  in  North  America.  It  has 
a  fine  harbor.  Prince  Edward  Island  is  the  smallest  and 
most  thickly  settled  province.  Farming  and  fishing  are  the 
chief  industries.  Quebec  and  Ontario  are  the  two  most 
important  provinces.  Quebec  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River.  The  capital  is  Quebec.  About  three 
fourths  of  the  people  are  French.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest 
and  most  interesting  cities  in  North  America.  Montreal  is 
the  largest  city.  It  is  built  on  an  island  in  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  St.  Lawrence  is  two  miles  wide  at  this  place-  and  is 
spanned  by  a  famous  bridge,  the  longest  tubular  bridge  in 
the  world.  Ontario  is  the  richest  and  most  populous  part 
of  Canada.  It  produces  large  quantities  of  grain.  To- 
ronto, the  capital,  is  a  large  and  flourishing  city.  Mani- 
toba has  a  fine  soil  and  produces  large  crops  of  wheat. 
Winnipeg  is  a  great  wheat  center.  There  is  also  excellent 
pasture  for  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle.  British  Columbia 
borders  on  the  Pacific.  Ocean.  It  also  includes  the  islands 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  capital  is  Victoria,  located  on  a 
fine  harbor.  Vancouver  is  a  growing  city,  the  terminus  of 
the  great  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  that  runs  from  ocean 
to  ocean.  British  Columbia  is  rich  in  forests  and  minerals. 
There  are  vast  territories  which  at  one  time  belonged  to 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  This  compauy  built  forts,  or 
trading  stations,  in  many  places,  and  purchased  skins  of 


"Humboldt's  Cypress,"  the  Largest  Tree  in  Mexico. 


i'hoto  by  Charles  i'.  kumwis. 


North  America. 


43 


beavers,  otters,  foxes,  moose,  and 
other  wild  animals  from  the  In- 
dians. The  Yukon  district,  which 
contains  the  Klondike  gold-fields, 
is  by  far  the  most  valuable  of  the 
territories.  Dawson  is  the  principal 
city.  It  is  an  enterprising  mining- 
town.  Newfoundland  is  an  impor- 
tant British  colony.  The  principal 
industry  is  cod-fishing.  The  cap- 
ital is  St.  John.  Labrador  is  one 
of  the  most  desolate  regions  of  the 
world.  It  has  about  1,500  inhabi- 
tants, mostly  Eskimos. 

MEXICO. 

The  main  part  of  Mexico  is  a 
lofty  plateau,  4,000  to  8,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
northern  part  of  Mexico  is  mostly 
desert.  Orizaba  and  Popocatepetl 
are  high  volcanic  peaks  in  the 
southern  part. 

Mexico  has  three  climates:  the 
low,  hot,  moist,  coast  climate;  the 
mountain  slopes,  with  a  climate  so 
agreeable  as  to  deserve  the  name 
of  "  the  Paradise  of  Mexico";  the 
high  altitudes,  where  the  climate  is 
cold.  The  hot  lands  of  the  coast 
produce  cotton,  sugar-cane,  ba- 
nanas, and  other  fruits;  the  tem- 
perate lands  produce  corn,  wheat, 

rice,  beans,  etc.  Large  numbers  of  cattle  are  exported. 
Other  exports  are  fine  wools,  hides,  hemp,  vanilla,  coffee, 
and  tobacco.  The  great  wealth,  however,  consists  of  coal, 
iron,  silver,  copper,  lead,  gold,  and  petroleum. 

Mexico  has  an  interesting  history.     Before  it  was  con- 
quered by  Cortez  in  1521,  it  was  peopled  by  the  Aztecs, 


a  race  far  advanced  in  civilization. 
The  ruins  of  their  fine  temples  may 
yet  be  seen.  Mexico  has  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  twelve  millions. 
The  people  of  the  ruling  race  are 
mainly  Spanish.  The  government 
is  now  a  republic.  President  Diaz 
is  a  wise  president.  The  nation 
during  the  last  twenty  years  has 
advanced  to  a  new  destiny.  The 
capital  is  the  City  of  Mexico.     It  is 


Scenes  in  Mexico 


an  interesting  city.  A  railroad 
runs  from  El  Paso,  in  the  United 
States,  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  Vera 
Cruz,  and  other  noted  places. 
Along  the  Pacific  Ocean  are  a  num- 
ber of  cities  where  trade  is  carried 
on  with  coasting- vessels  from  Pnget 
Sound,  San  Francisco,  and  other 
American  ports. 


A  Ranch  Home  in  Costa  Rica. 


Government  Palace,  City  of  Mexico. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

This  country  is  now  very  important  because  of  the  move- 
ment to  build  a  ship-canal  across  Nicaragua,  from  ocean  to 
ocean,  a  distance  of  170  miles.  The  canal  will  utilize  for  all 
but  17  miles  of  the  distance  the  San  Juan  River  and  Lake 
Nicaragua.  It  will  cost  many  millions  of  dollars  to  build  this 
canal,  but  it  will  be  of  great  value  to  the  commerce  of  the 


44 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Fountain,  Town  of  Chiapa,  Central  America. 

world.  The  natural  wealth  of  Central  America  is  very  great. 
The  exports  are  sugar,  copper,  tobacco,  rubber,  tropical 
fruits,  and  dye-woods.  The  population  is  less  than  two 
millions,  mostly  Indians.  There  are  five  independent  re- 
publics and  the  British  colony  of  Belize.  The  republics  are 
Guatemala,  Salvador,  Costa  Rica,  Nicaragua,  and  Honduras. 

THE  WEST  INDIES. 

Columbus  landed  on  one  of  the  small  islands  of  this  group 
in  1492.  It  was  called  San  Salvador.  These  islands  sepa- 
rate the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Situated 
as  they  are  in  the  region  of  the  cyclones  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  they  are  frequently  visited  by  most  destructive  hur- 
ricanes. Since  the  end  of  Spanish  dominion  in  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico,  these  islands  have  assumed  a  new  importance. 
The  most  important  of  these  islands  is  Cuba. 

CUBA. 

Cuba,  "  the  Queen  of  the  Antilles,"  is  the  largest  island 
of  the  West  Indies.  Its  length  is  about  750  miles ;  its  area 
is  43,000  miles.  There  are  many  small  rivers.  The  coasts 
are  fringed  with  coral  reefs,  rocks,  and  bars.  There  are 
a  number  of  fine  harbors.  The  one  at  Havana  will  always 
be  noted  as  being  the  place  where  the  battle-ship  Maine 
was  blown  up;  and  the  one  at  Santiago  for  the  heroic  deed 
of  Hobson,  and  the  great  naval  battle  in  which  Cervera's 
Spanish  fleet  was  destroyed.  Cuba  has  a  population  of 
about  1,500,000  people.  Havana  is  the  largest  city.  It  is 
also  the  railroad  center  and  chief  port.  Santiago  is  also 
an  important  city.  The  products  are  coffee,  sugar,  cotton, 
fruits,  etc.  The  climate  during  the  dry  and  winter  season 
is  beautiful  and  pleasant.  The  lowlands  are  very  hot  dur- 
ing the  rainy  season.  The  Spaniards  relinquished  all  claim 
to  Cuba,  and  it  passed  under  the  control  of  the  United  States 
in  1898.  It  is  at  present  ruled  by  a  governor- general, 
appointed  by  the  President.  Good  free  schools  have  been 
established. 

PORTO  RICO. 

Porto  Rico  is  about  90  miles  long  and  36  miles  broad.  It 
is  in  the  hot  belt,  and  has  dry  and  rainy  seasons.     It  has  a 


population  of  about  900,000  people.  San  -Juan  is  the  capi- 
tal. The  principal  products  are  tobacco,  coffee,  rice,  and 
sugar.  The  island  belongs  to  the  United  States,  and  is 
governed  by  a  governor- general,  appointed  by  the  President. 

Other  important  islands  are  Haiti  and  Jamaica.  There 
are  many  smaller  islands  that  belong  to  European  nations, 
Great  Britain,  France,  Denmark,  and  Sweden. 

The  Bermuda  Islands,  about  600  miles  east  of  South 
Carolina,  belong  to  Great  Britain.  Bermuda  is  an  attrac- 
tive winter  resort. 

QUESTIONS  ON  NORTH  AMERICA. 

How  is  North  America  separated  from  Asia?  How  is  it  joined  to 
South  America?  What  is  the  distance  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama? 
How  wide  is  Bering  Strait?  Name  the  principal  mountain  ranges 
of  North  America.  Describe  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  Sierras.  The 
Coast  Range.  The  Appalachians.  Name  the  highest  peaks.  Describe 
the  Rocky  Mountain  highland.  The  great  central  basin.  Describe 
the  water-shed  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  highlands.  Describe  the  part- 
ing of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  highlands.  Name  the  divisions  of 
North  America.  What  is  meant  by  Danish  America?  Describe  Green- 
land. What  is  the  principal  industry?  What  animals  may  be  found 
there?  Describe  Iceland.  What  is  meant  by  a  geyser?  Name  the  chief 
source  of  wealth  of  the  country.  Name  the  capital.  Locate  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  How  is  it  governed?  Give  the  population.  For 
what  is  New  Brunswick  noted?  Where  is  Halifax?  Has  it  a  fine  har- 
bor? Of  what  country  is  it  the  capital?  Describe  Prince  Edward 
Is)and.  What  are  the  chief  industries?  Locate  Quebec.  Name  the 
principal  city.  How  is  it  located?  To  what  country  do  the  people 
belong?  Where  is  Montreal?  How  is  it  located?  Describe  the  St. 
Lawrence  at  this  point.  Where  is  the  longest  tubular  bridge  in  the 
world?  Locate  Ontario.  Name  the  capital.  What  is  said  of  Ontario  ? 
What  is  the  principal  product?  Where  is  Manitoba?  Describe  Win- 
nipeg. For  what  is  it  noted  ?  Where  is  British  Columbia?  Name  the 
capital.  Where  is  Vancouver?  Where  is  the  terminus  of  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railroad?  Name  the  principal  industries  of  British 
Columbia.  Describe  the  Yukon  Territory.  What  is  the  chief  city? 
Where  was  gold  discovered  in  this  territory  a  few  years  ago?  What 
is  meant  by  the  Klondike?  Where  is  Newfoundland?  What  is  the 
principal  industry?  Name  the  capital.  What  is  said  of  Labrador? 
Locate  Mexico.  What  is  said  of  its  highlands?  What  is  said  of  its 
lowlands?  Describe  its  three  climates.  Name  its  principal  exports. 
What  is  its  great  industry?  How  is  it  governed?  Who  is  the  presi- 
dent? What  is  its  population?  Name  the  capital.  Why  is  Central 
America  important  at  this  time ?  Where  is  Nicaragua?  How  far  is  it 
from  ocean  to  ocean  at  this  place  ?  Name  the  five  countries  of  Central 
America.  What  is  the  population?  What  colony  has  the  British 
Empire  in  Central  America?  Describe  the  people.  Where  did  Co- 
lumbus land  in  1492? 
Where  are  the  West  In- 
dies? Name  the  most 
important  island  in  the 
group.  What  is  its  length? 
Its  area  ?  What  is  said 
of  its  shores?  Name  the 
principal  city.  For  what 
"is  the  harbor  of  Habana 
noted?  For  what  is  San- 
tiago noted  ?  How  is  , 
Cuba  governed  ?  What  is 
said  of  its  schools  ?  What 
is  said  of  its  products? 
Describe  Porto  Rico. 
Name  the  capital.  How 
is  it  governed?  What  are 
the    principal    products  ?  Mexican  Hut. 


THE  NEW  PACIFIC, 


s»?Ma!&/_ 


■•H20    Long.  E«st  from  Greenwich 


HAWAII. 

This  group  of  islands  is  located  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  about 
2683  miles  from  Seattle.  There  are  eight  inhabited  islands 
in  the  group.  They  are  important  as  coaling-stations  for 
ships  crossing  the  Pacific,  as  there  are  no  other  islands  near 


The  Mediterranean  was  the  first  great  sea  of  commerce. 
Then  the  Atlantic  Ocean  attained  supremacy.  Now  the 
Pacific  has  awakened  to  a  commercial  life  to  which  its 
waters  have  hitherto  been  unknown.  The  accession  of  new 
territory  by  the  United  States  promises  much  for  this  new 
life.  The  boundary  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  New  Pacific ' 
extends  from  Point  Barrow  to  Cape  Horn.  The  western 
coast  extends  from  East  Cape  to  Melbourne.  It  includes  in 
its  eastern  coast  St.  Michael,  Cape  Nome,  Skagway,  Sitka, 
Vancouver,  Victoria,  Seattle,  Tacoma,  Grays  Harbor,  Port- 
land, San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles,  San  Diego,  Guatemala, 
Nicaragua,  Panama,  Callao,  Valparaiso,  and  Santiago,  and 
on  its  western  coast,  Okhotsk,  Vladivostok,  Tokyo,  Yoko- 
hama, Formosa,  Hongkong,  Manila,  Singapore,  Brisbane, 
Sydney,  Melbourne,  Auckland,  Honolulu,  and  many  island 
ports.  The  three  principal  groups  of  islands  in  the  Pacific 
are  known  as  Polynesia,  Malaysia,  and  Australasia. 


1  Usually  called  Oceania  or  Oceanica. 


Fruits  from  Islands  in  the  New  Pacific. 

them  suitable  for  this  purpose.  The  islands  were  discovered 
by  Captain  Cook,  and  named  by  him  the  Sandwich  Islands,- 
in  honor  of  Lord  Sandwich.     Captain  Cook  was  killed  by 


45 


46 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


the  natives.     There  is  a  statute  of  him  on  the  island,  near 
the  spot  where  he  fell. 

Surface  and  Climate.  The  Hawaiian  Islands  rise 
from  a  great  depth  in  the  ocean,  and  reach  a  height  of  four- 
teen thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  two  largest 
volcanic  craters  in  the  world,  Kilauea  and  Mauna  Loa,  are 
on  the  island  of  Hawaii,  the  chief  island,  and  the  one  from 
which  the  group  is  named.  The  Punchbowl,  a  small  cone 
immediately  back  of  Honolulu,  is  an  extinct  crater.  Mauna 
Kea  is  a  volcanic  peak  13,800  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Mauna  Loa  is  an  active  volcano,  and 
is  frequently  in  eruption.  The  climate  of  the 
islands  is  very  pleasant  and  healthful 

Products.      Sugar   is    the 
main  product  of  the 


islands.  Rice, 
bananas,  cof- 
fee, hides,  and 
wool  are  ex- 
ported. The 
principal  food 
of  the  natives 
is  taro,  a  root 
like  the  beet  in 


lines  to  different  parts  of  the  Pacific  Coast, 
popular  as  a  resort  for  tourists. 


The  city  is 


THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

The  Philippine  Islands  were  discovered  by  Magellan,  who 
made  the  first  voyage  through  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  and 
crossed  the  Pacific.  They  are  about  6,500  miles  from  the 
Pacific  Coast,  and  about  400  miles  from  Hongkong.  The 
United  States  secured  possession  of  these  islands  from  Spain 
In  1898.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  from 
«■  fourteen  hundred  to  sixteen  hundred  islands. 
They  have  never  been  counted  or  surveyed. 
The  islands  of  first  geographical  impor- 
tance are  Luzon,  Mindanao,  Sa- 
mar,  Panay,  Negros, 
Leyte,  Pala- 
_  wan,  Min- 
I  dorlPandthe 
Sulu  Archi- 
pelago.   . 

The  largest 
island  of  the 
group  is  Lu- 
zon,      which 


1.  Old  Plantation 

2.  Banana  Plantation. 

3.  Kapiolani  Park. 


Views  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands 

4.  Tropical  Home.     ,  7. 

5.  Pineapple  Plantation. 

6.  Coffee  Plantation. 


shape,  but  tast- 
ing somewhat 
like  the  potato. 
The  beautiful 
vegetation,  the 
tropical  fruits, 
the  healthful  cli- 
mate, make  Hawaii  an 
enchanted  spot  in  the  ocean. 

People.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  islands  is  about 
110,000.  About  one  third 
of  the  natives  are  of  the  brown  race  and  half-castes,  more 
than  one  third  are  Chinese  and  Japanese,  and  the  remainder 
are  white  people.  When  the  islands  were  discovered  by  Cap- 
tain Cook,  about  a  century  ago,  there  were  five  times  as  many 
natives  as  there  are  now,  and  their  number  is  continually 
decreasing. 

Government.  Hawaii  was  annexed  to  the  United  States 
in  1898,  and  has  a  territorial  form  of  government.  The 
capital  is  Honolulu,  a  beautiful  city  of  about  30,000  popu- 
lation, with  fine  churches  and  excellent  schools.  It  is  a  port 
of  call  for  trans-Pacific  steamers,  and  has  regular  steamship 


Seene  on  Oahu  Railway. 
Cutting  Sugar-cane. 
Glimpse  of  Honolulu. 


lies    farthest  to 

the  north.     It  is 

480  miles  long, 

and  has  an  area 

of  40,982  square 

miles.      Manila, 

the         principal 

ituated  on  Luzon, 

and    this     island    naturally 

leads  the  others  in  points  of 

population    and   commercial 

importance. 

The  total  area  of  the  Philippine  Islands  is  114,356  square 
miles.  The  islands  are  nearly  all  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
their  geology  is  almost  wholly  unknown.  Most  of  the 
islands  are  hill}-,  and  there  are  some  high  mountain  ranges, 
between  which  lie  fertile  valleys,  well  watered  by  numerous 
rivers  and  lakes.  There  are  many  peaks  ranging  from  seven 
to  ten  thousand  feet.  The  largest  lake  is  called  Bay  Lake. 
It  is  about  145  miles  in  circumference.  It  is  the  source  of 
the  Pasig  River,  which  flows  by  the  city  of  Manila. 

The  People.  Over  thirty  different  tribes,  with  thirty 
different  languages,  live  on  these  islands.     The  two  prin- 


The  Philippine  Islands.  —  Australasia. 


47 


cipal  native  peoples  are  called  Taga'.os  and  the 
Visays.  The  Tagalos  live  on  the  low  lands  of 
Luzon.  The  Visays  inhabit  all  the  islands  south 
of  Luzon.  The  population  'of  the  islands  is 
about  8,000,000,  the  greater  part  being  Malay 
natives.  There  are  upwards  of  60,000  American 
s  ildiers  upon  the  islands.  There  are  some  few 
Spanish  residents. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  the  Philippines  is 
tropical,  but,  owing  to  the  extent  of  the  country 
and  its  position,  there  is  a  very  wide  range  of 
temperature.  The  year  is  divided  into  three  sea- 
sons. The  cold  season,  when  the  wind  blows 
from  central  Asia,  and  the  air  is  clear  and  bra- 
cing, lasts  from  November  until  March.  The  hot 
season  lasts  from  March  till  June.  From  July 
to  October  is  the  rainy  season.  On  the  north- 
ern islands  violent  winds  called  typhoons  are 
prevalent. 

Products.  The  forests  abound  in  ebony, 
cedar,  and  other  valuable  woods.  The  bamboo 
is  to  the  natives  what  the  redwood,  the  pine,  the 
cedar,  and  the  fir  are  to  the  residents  of  the  Pa- 
cific Coast.  Many  kinds  of  fruit  grow  in  great 
abundance.  Rice  is  the  chief  food  of  the  people. 
Manila  hemp,  sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  cocoa 
are  the  principal  exports.  The  mineral  wealth 
has  not  as  yet  been  developed,  but  coal,  iron, 
copper,  and  gold  have  been  found. 

Manila.  .Manila  is  the  chief  city  of  the  islands,  and 
was  established  in  1751.  It  is  called  "the  Walled  City." 
It  has  some  fine  buildings  and  numerous  schools  and  col- 
leges. The  schools  are  now  being  organized  on  the 
American  plan. 

Iloilo,  on  the  island  of  Panay,  is  another  important 
city. 

GUAM. 

Guam,  the  most  southern  of  the  Ladrone  Is- 
lands, is  another  possession  of  the  United  States. 
The  natives  are  Malays.  It  is  of  small  area, 
but  of  value  as  a  coaling  and  repair  station  in 
the  mid- Pacific.     Agana  is  the  chief  town. 


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THE  SULU  ISLANDS. 

The  Sum  Islands,  which  lie  to  the  south- 
west of  the  Philippines,  form  a  portion  of  the  Pacific  con- 
cessions of  Spain  to  the  United  States.  They  are  about 
150  in  number.  Most  of  them  are  valueless  masses  of 
rock,  but  some  of  the  larger  ones  are  fertile.  The  natives 
are  Mohammedans,  and  have  been  such  for  many  centuries. 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Australasia  includes  Australia,   Tasmania,  New  Zea- 
land, New  Guinea,  the  Caroline  Islands,  and  a  number  of 

other  small  groups.  ^CmJ^' 

AUSTRALIA.^  OA*"  '-^.H  l 
Australia  has  a  population  of  3,073,000,  and  an  area  of 
649,229  square  miles.N    Its  interior  consists  of  treeless  plains. 


Map  of  the  New  Pacific. 

The  only  important  streams  are  the  Murray  River  and  its 
tributaries.  In  the  northern  part  the  climate  is  extremely 
hot,  and  the  interior  is  dry.  In  New  South  Wales,  long, 
dry  seasons  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  floods  often 
damage  the  country  in  the  rainy  season. 

Sheep-raising  is  the  leading  branch  of  industry,  although 
many  cattle  and  horses  are  raised.  There  are  a  few  native 
fruits  of  value,  but  wheat,  corn,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and 
tropical  fruits  have  been  introduced  with  much  success. 
Australia  is  one  of  the  great  gold-producing  countries  of  the 
world.  There  are  also  copper,  iron,  silver,  tin,  lead,  zinc, 
and  coal.  Gold  and  wool  are  the  staple  exports.  The  na- 
tives are  of  a  low  grade  of  intellect.     They  are  few  in  num- 


,V 


48 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


ber,  and  are  rapidly  diminishing.     The  commerce  is  mostly 
with  Great  Britain. 

Melbourne,  the  capital  of  Victoria,  is  the  largest  city  in 


Post-office  at  Melbourne. 

Australia.     Sydney,  the  capital  of  New  South  Wales,  has  a 
fine  harbor.     All  the  cities  have  modern  improvements. 

TASMANIA. 

Tasmania  is  noted  for  its  depos- 
its of  coal,  iron,  tin,  and  other  min- 
erals. It  has  also  excellent  timber 
in  its  forests. 

NEW  ZEALAND. 

New  Zealand  is  valuable  for 
its  gold,  coal,  silver,  tin,  flax,  and 
wool.  The  soil  is  wonderfully  pro- 
ductive. Auckland  is  the  principal 
city  of  New  Zealand.  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  and  Tasmania  all  be- 
long to  Great  Britain. 


Robert  Louis  Stevenson's  Home  in  Samoa. 


HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

Australia  was  discovered  by  the  English,  and  for  a  century  and  a 
half  was  used  by  them  for  a  penal  colony,  just  as  Siberia  was  used  by 
the  Russians.  In  1840  this  practice  was  abandoned,  and  free  colonists, 
who  had  been  coming  for  thirty  years,  rapidly  increased  in  numbers, 
and  the  progress  of  the  country  during  the  past  fifty  years  has  been 
wonderful. 

SAMOA. 

Samoa  lies  northeast  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  and  consists  of  a 
group,  only  three  of  which  are  of  any  size,  Savaii,  Upolu, 
andTutuila.  The  total  population  is  about  35,000.  Apia  is 
the  principal  city.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  yields  abundant 
crops  of  coffee  and  cotton.  Bread-fruit  and  cocoanut-palms 
grow  profusely.  The  picturesque  beauty  and  the  genial  cli- 
mate of  these  islands  attracted  Robert  L.  Stevenson,  the  fa- 
mous writer.  He  made  Upolu  his  home.  Germans,  Britons, 
and  Americans  are  interested  in  these  islands,  and  the 
United  States  has  secured  the  port  of  Pango  Pango,  on  the 
island  of  Tutuila,  for  a  coaling-station. 


NEW  GUINEA. 

New  Guinea,  next  to  Greenland,  is  the  largest  island  in 
the  world.  It  is  separated,  from  Australia  by  a  shallow 
strait.  It  has  dense  forests  and  a  fertile  soil.  The  Nether- 
lands claim  the  western  part,  Germany  a  part  of  the  north 
coast,  and  Great  Britain  holds  the  rest. 

The  Solomon  Islands,  New  Caledonia,  and  The  Fiji 
Islands  all  have  a  warm  climate,  abundant  moisture,  and 
luxuriant  vegetation.  The  food- plants  are  the  cocoanut- 
palm,  bread-fruit,  tea,  yams,  and  sugar-cane.  Tropical 
fruits  are  exported. 

The  Fiji  Islands  are  of  volcanic  origin.  The  Fijians 
were  once  cannibals.  Many  of  them  have  become  Chris- 
tians. These  islands,  now  quite  civilized,  are  an  important 
factor  in  the  commerce  of  the  New  Pacific. 

NOTE. 

By  looking  at  the  globe,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  circles  running 
parallel  to  the  equator  grow  smaller  as  they  approach  the  poles.  Every 
circle,  regardless  of  size,  is  divided  into  three  hundred  and  sixty  parts, 
called  degrees.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  degrees  vary  in  length, 
and  that  they  grow  shorter  as  the  distance  from  the  equator  increases. 
On  the  equator  a  degree  has  69.8  miles. 

Masters  of  steamers  going  from  Tacoma  or  Seattle,  to  Japan,  go 
north,  so  as  to  cross  on  the  shortest  possible  parallel  cirale;  viz.,  fifty- 
two  degrees,  just   south  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands.     This  is  known  as  "  great  circle 
sailing." 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  NEW  PACIFIC. 
Locate  the  New  Pacific .      Describe  its 
eastern  boundary ;  its  western  boundary. 
Name  some  of  the  commercial  ports   of 
the  New  Pacific.     Name  the  three  princi- 
pal groups  of  islands  in  the  New  Pacific. 
Locate  Hawaii.      Who  discovered  these 
islands  ?       What    happened    to    Captain 
Cook?     Describe  the  surface ;  the  climate. 
Name  the  products.     Describe  the  people ; 
the    government.      Who    discovered   the 
Philippine  Islands  ?     When  did  they  come 
into   possession   of    the   United    States  ? 
Name  the    principal    islands.       Describe 
the  surface  of  the  islands;    the  climate; 
products.     Name  the  principal  cities.      Describe  Guam.      Tell   what 
you  can  about  the   Sulu   Islands.      Describe   Australia.      What  are 
the  products  'i     Name  the  principal  cities.     Give  an  account  of  Tas- 


An  Island  in  the  New  Pacific. 

mania.  Describe  New  Zealand.  Locate  Samoa;  the  Fiji  Islands; 
Guam.  What  is  said  of  the  climates  of  these  islands  ?  What  is  so  id 
of  the  products? 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  National  Capitol,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Location.  The  United  States  occupy  the  middle  por- 
tion of  North  America.  The  greatest  length,  from  ocean 
to  ocean,  is  2,500  miles;  the  greatest  width,  from  Texas  to 
Canada,  is  1,C00  miles;  and  the  area,  including  Alaska,  is 
3^668^167  square  miles. 

The  United  States  is  the  most  progressive  country  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere.  Its  large  cities,  its  flue  schools  and 
universities,  its  great  manufacturing  enterprises,  the  fer- 
tility of  its  soil,  the  variety  of  its  products,  the  social  and 
economic  condition  of  its  people,  and  its  matchless  progress 
make  it  the  most  wonderful  country  on  the  globe. 

The  United  States  has  an  area  of  over  3,500,000  square 
miles.  It  comprises  the  Appalachian  Highland,  the  Atlantic 
Plain,  the  Great  Central  Plain,  Pacific  Highland,  and  Pacific 
Slope. 

The  river  basins  of  the  Atlantic  Plain  are  small;  rocky 
toward  the  north,  and  sandy  or  swampy  toward  the  south. 

The  Appalachian  Mountains  are  the  oldest  mountains  on 
the  continent.  They  have  gradually  worn  away,  and  thus 
furnish  soil  for  the  Atlantic  Slope  and  the  Great  Central 
Basin. 


Nearly  one  half  of  the  United  States  lies  in  the  Great 
Central  Plain.  It  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  productive 
regions  in  the  world. 


J7LMS/<A:       \  FROM  RUSSIA. 

r&jiKi-rofiY:}  iBb7. 

POKTO  RICO:   \  FROM    6PAJX. 

TEKRirOKY.)  I&98. 

MAVSAU  :  \  ANNEXED 

TSMfiJTOAY.    \ 


SrAT/OM 
Guam  : 

JJAVAL 

STATIOH 

CUBA'. 

PMocrxcroAAns 


Growth  of  the  United  States.     Diagram  showing  the  date  of  admission 
of  the  states  and  the  accession  of  new  territory. 


49 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


51 


Map  Showing  Highlands  and  Lowlands  of  the  United  States. 


The  Mississippi  River  Basin  contains  over  1,000,000 
square  miles.  There  is  only  one  larger  river  basin  in  the 
world, — the  Amazon.  The  Missouri-Mississippi  is  the  lon- 
gest river  in  the  world. 

One  third  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States 
lies  in  the  Pacific  Highland.  This  includes  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Plateau,  and  the  basins  of  the 
Columbia  and  the  Colorado  Rivers,  and  the  inte- 
rior basin  of  Utah  and  Nevada. 

The  Pacific  Slope  region  contains  many  large 
and  fertile  plains,  although  its  general  character 
is  mountainous.  The  influence  of  the  warm  Japan 
current  makes  its  climate  more  genial  than  that 
of  any  other  portion  of  the  United  States  of  equal 
latitude. 

The  Growth  of  the  United  States.    At 

the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  in  1783,  the 
new  republic  was  formed.       The  map  shows   the 
thirteen  colonies  or  states. 

The  country  has  grown  very  much  since  then, 
the  United  States  purchased  from  Napoleon  what  is  known 
as  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  A  few  years  later,  Florida  was 
purchased  from  Spain.  Then  came  the  era  of  steamboats 
and  railroads,  and  the  settlements  extended  to  the  West. 

Texas  was  annexed  in  1845,  and  a  few  years  later,  Cali- 
fornia and  other  territory  was  gained  from  Mexico.  In  1 867, 
Alaska  was  purchased  from  Russia,  for  $7,200,000.  In 
1898,  the  Hawaiian  Islands  were  annexed.  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  Guam,  and  the  Philippine  Islands  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States  by  Spain. 

A  study  of  the  map  showing  when  each  state  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union,  and  the  accession  of  new  territory, 
will  be  very  interesting. 

The  People.     A  hundred  years  ago  there  were  less  than 


3,000,000  people  in  our  country. 
Now,  there  are  over  70,000,000. 
Much  of  this  rapid  growth  is  due 
to  people  coming  to  this  country 
from  other  lands,  particularly 
from  Ireland  and  Germany.  Of 
late  years  there  has  been  an  effort 
to  stop  immigration,  particularly 
people  from  Asiatic  countries,  and 
contract  laborers  from  Europe. 

Religion.  There  is  no  estab- 
lished religion,  but  alnjost  every 
creed  is  represented. 

Products  and  Industries. 

The  United  States  is  the  fore- 
most country  in  the  world  in  the 
production  of  corn,  wheat,  cotton, 
and  tobacco. 

There  are  three  natural  divis- 
ions of  products:  The  Southern, 
Middle,  and  Northern.  The  first 
is  the  land  of  cotton;  the  second, 
the  land  of  corn;  and  the  third, 
More  hogs  and  cattle  are  raised  than  in 


the  laud  of  wheat 
any  other  country. 

The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Columbia  River,  Puget  Sound 


original 


In  1803, 


Map  of  Cuba, 
and  Alaska,  and  the  codfish   and  oysters  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  form  important  industries. 

The  mineral  products  are  very  valuable.     The  coal  and 


Map  of  Porto  Rico. 


52 


The  United  States. 


iron  of  the  Eastern  and 
Southern  sections;  the  cop- 
per, lead,  gold,  and  silver 
of  the  North,  Western,  and 
Southwestern  sections;  and 
the  gold  of  Cape  Nome  and 
the  Yukon  keep  millions  of 
people  busy. 

The  natural  gas  in  the 
Middle  States  is  used  for 
fuel  and  for  manufacturing 
purposes. 

The  oil  regions  extend 
from  Pennsylvania  to  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  manufactures  of  the 
United  States  are  rapidly 
increasing.  The  Atlantic 
coast,  from  Maine  to  Penn- 
sylvania, is  the  great  manu- 
facturing center.  This  is 
due  to  the  excellent  water- 
power,  numerous  railroad 
and  steamship  lines,  and 
the  density  of  population. 
In  Chicago  and  other  East- 
ern cities,  beef,  pork,  and 
mutton  are  prepared  for 
export  and  home  use  by 
processes  of  manufacture. 
Manufactures  of  bread- 
stuffs,  clothing,  iron  and 
steel,  woolen  goods,  boots 
and  shoes,  leather,  liquors, 
and  novelties  are  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  entire 
country. 

The  people  are  noted  for 
their  inventive  power.  The 
telegraph,    telephone,    and 

graphophone,  and  the  application  of  electricity  to  all  the 
various  industries  of  life  were  first  used  in  this  country. 
Other  inventions  are  the  cotton-gin,  typewriter,  typesetting- 
machine,  sewing-machine,  bicycle,  automobiles,  mowers, 
reapers,  and  combined  harvesters,  and  labor-saving  ma- 
chines of  all  kinds. 

Commerce.  Trade  within  the  boundary  of  our  own 
country  is  called  domestic  commerce.  When  the  trade  is 
with  merchants  of  other  countries,  it  is  called  foreign  com- 
merce. When  we  bring  any  products  from  other  countries 
to  our  country,  we  call  them  imports.  We  import  sugar. 
tea,  coffee,  spices,  drugs,  silks,  and  perfumes.  When  we 
send  products  to  merchants  of  other  countries,  we  call  them 
exports.  We  export  wheat,  cotton,  provisions,  tobacco, 
iron  and  steel,  lumber,  and  dairy  products. 

Transportation.  The  coastwise  trade  of  the  Pacifie 
and  the  Atlantic  is  carried  on  by  great  merchant  vessels. 


1.  Mountain  Sheep. 

2.  Coyote. 


Wild  Animals  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

3.  Wild  Cats.         5.  Coon  and  Cat  Skins.         7.  Mountain  Lion. 

4.  Mule  Deer.        6.  Red  Pox.  8.  Grizzly  Bear. 

The  Great  Lakes  near  Chicago,  the  Mississippi,  the  Ohio, 
and  other  rivers,  and  numerous  canals  form  means  of  trans- 
portation, when  speed  is  not  required.  The  chief  means 
of  transportation,  however,  are  the  railroads. 

Government.  The  United  States  is  a  republic.  There 
are  now  45  states,  5  territories,  and  several  other  posses- 
sions. There  are  national,  state,  and  local  governments. 
The  national  government  is  divided  into  three  parts:  the 
Law-making,  the  Executive,  and  the  Judicial. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Locate  the  United  States.  What  is  its  greatest  length  from  ocean 
to  ocean?  Describe  its  highlands  and  lowlands.  What  is  said  of  its 
progressiveness?  What  about  its  growth?  What  territory  has  it 
secured  since  1898?  Population?  Religion?  Name  the  principal  in- 
dustries. Name  the  principal  products.  What  is  said  of  its  com- 
merce? Describe  its  facilities  for  transportation.  Describe  its  gov- 
ernment. 


INDUSTRIAL  STATISTICS  OF 


MISCELLASECrS  STATISTICS. 

Tobacco  I  *"»*•«*.  403,004,000  lbs.  1 

loDaceo  .     .     .     .     }Value|      $24,258,000         j 

Wool Product,  272,101,330  lbs. 

Hogs,  number  packed  and  mar- )  go  791  000 
noted    ......     ....  J 

Wheat Product,  597,294,000  bu. 

Butter  and  cheese  .  "Value,       $6,500,000 

Sugar Product,  708,951,000  lbs. 

Farm  products    .     .     .      Value,  $2,460,107,454 
Fisheries Value,        50,000,000 


EXPORTS   FROM    UNITED    STATES  — 1898. 

Agricultural  products ,     .     , $854,627,929 

Mining 19,802,417 

Forest 37,900,171 

Fisheries 5,538,925 

Manufactures ....     - 288,871,449 

Miscellaneous 3,551,206 


LAND  UNDER  CI 

Indian  corn 

Wheat i 

Oats      '.- , i 

Cotton  .  ' 

Barley J 

Potatoes | 

CHIEF  WHEAT-GROW! 
Minnesota 

California 
Kansas 
North  Dakota 
Illinois 
United  States 


Industrial  and  Relief  Map 

of  the 

United  States. 


UNITED  STATES.  —For  Reference. 

896.  CHIEF  COTTON-GROWING   STATES  — 1899. 

0*27,000  acres.  Texas    ............    3,143,000  bales  of  raw  cotton. 

619,000  acres.  Georgia 1,448,000  bales  of  raw  cotton. 

366,000  acres.  Mississippi 1,776,000  bales,  of  raw  cotton. 

185.000  acres.  South  Carolina  960,000  bales  of  raw  cotton. 

950,000  acres.  Alabama.     .  1,161,000  bales  of  raw  cotton. 

767,000  acres.  United  States 11,235,000  bales  of  raw  cotton. 

TES— 1896. 

Ilion  bushels.  CHIEF  MINERAL  PRODUCTIONS  — 1896. 

lion  bushels.  Bituminous  coal  .     Product,  122,893,000  long  tons.     Value,  $114,890,000 

lion  bushels.  Anthracite  coal     .     Product,    48,010,000  long  tons.     Value,     81,415,000 

lion  bushels.  Pig-iron    ....     Product,      8,623,000  long  tons.     Value,      90,230,000 

lion  bushels.  Gold Value,      53,088,000 

lion  bushels.  Silver Value,      76,069.000 


GROWTH  OF  RAILWAYS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
Date .     .     .     .1830  1850  1870  1890  1896  1898 

Miles  open      .    23  9,021  52,922  166,65,8  182,600  186,396 

ESTIMATED  WEALTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
Real  estate,  with  improvements  thereon  ........  $39,344,544,333 

Live-stock  on  farms  and  ranges,  farm  implements,  etc.    .     .      2,703,015,040 

Mines  and  quarries,  including  product  on  hand 1,291,201,579 

Gold  and  silver  coin  and  bullion 1,158,774,948 

Mill  machinery,  product  on  hand,  raw  and  manufactured    .      3,058,593,441 
Railroads  and  stock,  including  $283,898,519  street  railroads  .       8,685,407,323 

Telegraphs,  telephones,  shipping,  and  canals 701,755,712 

Miscellaneous 7,893,708,821 

Total $65,037,091,197 


THE   PACIFIC   COAST  STATES. 


California,  Oregon,  Washington,  and  the 
territory  of  Alaska  border  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Washington  is  treated  of  in  the 
preceding  pages. 

OREGON. 

Location.  Oregon  is  south  of  Wash- 
ington, and  north  of  California.  Its  west- 
ern border  is  the  Pacific  Ocean.-  Its  length, 
from  east  to  west,  is  about  350  miles,  and 
it  is  about  275  miles  in  breadth. 

Mountains.  The  Cascade  Mountain 
Range  extends  from  north  to  south,  and 
divides  the  state  into  eastern  Oregon  and 
western  Oregon.  One  of  the  largest  forest 
reservations  in  the  world  is  in  the  Cascade 
Range .  Crater  Lake ,  the  deepest  fresh-water 
lake  in  America,  is  also  in  the  Cascade 
Mountains.  It  fills  the  crater  of  an  extinct 
volcano,  and  is  surrounded  by  bluffs  two 
thousand  feet  in  height.  Mount  Hood, 
Mount  Pitt,  and  Mount  Jefferson  are  all 
picturesque    peaks. 

Valleys.  The  Willamette  Valley,  be- 
tween the  Cascades  and  the  Coast  Range,  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  fertile  in  the  world,  and  is  the  most  highly 
cultivated  valley  in  the  state.  There  are  numerous  coast 
valleys  opening  towards  the  Pacific,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  those  of  the  Rogue  and  Umpqua  rivers.  The 
scenery  along  most  of  the  rivers  of  the  state  is  very  beauti- 
ful, and  is  majestic  at  the  Cascades,  where  the  Columbia 
breaks  through  the  mountain  walls  of  lava  basalt. 


On  the  Columbia  River,  Oregon.     The  Dalles. 


Crater  Lake,  Cascade  Mountains,  Oregon. 

Rivers.  The  Columbia,  with  its  tributaries,  drains  the 
greater  part  of  Oregon.  It  forms  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  state  for  a  distance  of  300  miles.  Its  chief  branches 
in  Oregon  are  the  Willamette,  Des  Chutes,  John  Day,  Uma- 
tilla, and  Snake.  There  are  numerous  short  rivers  flowing 
from  the  Coast  Range  directly  into  the  ocean,  of  which  the 
largest  are  the  Rogue  and  the  Umpqua.  The  Klamath 
River  rises  in  the  lake  country  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
.    -     -  state,   which  it  drains,   and  flows  along 

the  northern  part  of  California. 

Products  and  Industries.     The 

mountains  are  well  covered  with  timber. 
Wheat,  oats,  and  fruits  are  raised.  The 
fisheries  and  creameries  are  important 
enterprises.  There  is  considerable  gold 
mined  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts 
of  the  state. 

Cities.  Portland  is  the  principal 
city.  It  is  said  to  be  the  richest  city  in 
the  world,  per  capita.  It  is  120  miles 
from  the  ocean,  but  has  all  the  advan- 
tages of  a  seaport.  It  has  regular  steam- 
ship lines  to  Alaska,  China  and  other 
Oriental  ports,  and  for  coastwise  trade. 
Other  thriving  cities  are  The  Dalles, 
Pendleton,  Baker  City,  Salem,  Ashland, 
Eugene,  and  Astoria.    The  State  Univer- 


57 


58 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


sity  is  located  at  Eugene,  the 
Agricultural  College  at  Corvallis, 
and  normal  schools  at  Monmouth, 
Weston,  Ashland,  and  Drain.  Sa- 
lem is  the  capital. 

CALIFORNIA. 

California  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  states  in  the  Union.  Its 
variety  of  climate,  its  matchless 
resources,  its  forests  of  redwoods, 
its  groves  of  oranges  and  lemons, 
its  wonderful  springs,  and  unequaled  natural  scenery  make 
it  one  of  the  most  favored  states  in  the  Union. 

Location.  It  is  over  seven  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
long,  and  two  hundred  miles  wide.  The  southern  border 
is  Mexico,  and  the  western  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Mountains.  The  Sierra  Nevada  Range  extends  north 
and  south  nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  state.  The  loftiest 
summits  are  Mount  Whitney,  14,898  feet  high,  and  Mount 
Shasta,  "lone  as  God,  and  white  as  a  winter's  moon," 
14,350.  The  Coast  Range  extends  near  the  coast  line  the 
entire  length  of  the  state.  Some  of  the  most  noted  peaks 
are  Monte  Diablo,  3,849  feet;  Mount  Hamilton,  4,440  feet, 
the  site  of  the  famous  Lick  Observatory;  and  Mount  Ta- 
malpais,  overlooking  San  Francisco,  is  2,597  feet  high. 
Mount  San  Bernardino  and  Mount  San  Jacinto,  in  south- 
ern California,  are  also  noted  peaks. 

Valleys.  The  San  Joaquin,  Sacramento,  Santa  Clara, 
Napa,  and  other  valleys  of  the  state  are  very  fertile.  The 
two  largest  rivers  are  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin. 
The  most  noted  lake  is  Lake  Tahoe.  The  most  wonder- 
ful natural  scenery  is  the  celebrated  Yosemite  Valley.  There 
are  very  beautiful  summer  and  winter  resorts,  lakes,  and 
springs  from  San  Diego  to  the  Oregon  line.  The  climate  in 
southern  California  is  dry,  equable,  and  healthful.  In  north- 
ern California  there  is  more  rain.  The  climate,  however,  is 
not  severe  along  the  coast. 

Products  and  Industries.  The  products  are  varied. 
Oranges,  lemons,  olives,  and  raisins  are  the  principal  ex- 
ports from  the  south. 
Wheat,  wines,  and  fruit 
of  all  kinds  form  the  prin- 
cipal exports  of  the  central 
and  northern  parts.  Min- 
ing is  an  important  indus 
try.  Gold,  silver,  quick- 
silver, copper,  petroleum, 
and  coal  form  important 
industries.  Stock-raising, 
lumbering,  manufactures 
of  all  kinds,  including  the 
great  ship-building  firm, 
the  Union  Iron  Works, 
are  important  and  flour- 
ishing businesses  carried 
on  in  the  state. 


Tillamook  Lighthouse,  Oregon. 


Schools.  California  has  two  of 
the  great  universities  of  the  coun- 
try, the  University  of  California 
and  Stanford  University.  There 
are  state  normal  schools  at  San 
Jose,  San  Francisco,  Chico,  Los 
Angeles,  and  San  Diego,  which  offer 
special  advantages,  and  there  are 
public  schools  in  every  part  of  the 
state,  comparing  favorably  with 
any  in  the  country. 


»*,.. 

|    .J4« 

l~~2*s 

jp.       "•» 

•         J 

! 

- 

iw. 

Summit  of  Mount  Whitney. 


Mount  Hamilton  and  the  Lick  Observatory. 


Cities.  San  Francisco, 
by  the  Golden  Gate,1  is 
the  largest  city  on  the 
Pacific  Coast.  Los  An- 
geles, Oakland,  San  Jose, 
Fresno,  Stockton,  and  San 
Diego  are  all  important 
cities.  Sacramento  is  the 
capital. 

Riverside,  Santa  Bar- 
bara, Coronado,  Castle 
Crag,  Redlands,  and  Mon- 
terey are  noted  resorts. 

1  The  entrance  to  San  Fran- 
cisco harbor  was  named  the 
Golden  Gate  by  Fremont 
(1S4S),  in  a  letter  to  the  gov- 
ernment. 


Alaska. 


59 


ALASKA. 

Alaska  forms  nearly  one  sixth  of  the  United 
States.  It  was  bought  in  1867,  from  Russia,  for 
$7,200,000.  It  is  in  the  extreme  northwest  part  of 
North  America.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  west  by  Bering  Sea,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Rivers.  The  principal  river  is  the  Yukon.  It 
rises  near  the  Pacific,  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
Chilkoot  Pass,  and  flows  into  Bering  Sea.  Its 
winding  currents  resemble  an  enormous  horseshoe. 
It  is  over  a  mile  wide  600  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  it  is  navigable  for  small  steamboats.  It  is  two 
thousand  miles  long,  and  empties  into  Bering  Sea, 
through  a  delta.  Its  drainage  basin  is  second  in 
size  on  the  continent.  Copper  River  is  another 
great  river. 

Climate.  The  great  Japan  current  is  borne  to 
the  Alaskan  shores.  The  prevailing  winds  in  the 
summer  are  from  the  south,  and  are  warm  and 
moist.  As  they  blow  up  on  the  mountains  they  be- 
come cool,  and  the  land  is  enveloped  in  mist  and 
clouds.  The  southern  part  of  Alaska,  therefore, 
has  a  heavy  rainfall.  The  interior  is  intensely  cold 
during  the  most  of  the  year.  The  ground  is  frozen 
to  a  great  depth,  and  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
one  great  body  of  ice.  On  account  of  the  north 
part  being  near  the  north  pole,  there  are  several 
weeks  in  the  winter  when  it  is  night  all  the  time, 
and  several  in  the  summer  when  it  is  day  all  the 
time. 

Products.  The  Pribilof  Islands  are  noted  for 
fur-seals.  Otters,  martens,  black  and  brown  bears, 
and  the  silver  fox  are  also  killed  for  their  furs. 
Cod  and  salmon  are  caught  in  great  quantities,  and 
there  are  many  salmon  factories. 

At  Cape  Nome,  gold  was  discovered  in  1898. 
Thousands  of  people  have  been  attracted  to  Alaska 
by  the  discoveries  in  the  Klondike  region,  Circle 
City,  Nome,  and  -elsewhere.  The  caribou  is  found 
in  the  interior  of  Alaska. 

People.  The  gold  discoveries  of  recent  years 
have  sent  a  large  number  of  white  people  into  the 


count  ry. 
Eskimos, 
and  Indi- 
ans, and 
Aleuts 
are  the 
native 
races;  the 
Aleuts 
live  on 
the  Aleu- 
tian Is- 
lands, and 


In  the  Yosemite  Valley. 

somewhat  resemble  the  Eskimo.  The  natives  have  strange 
and  interesting  customs.  The  first  white  settlements  in 
Alaska  were  made  by  the  Russians. 

Settlements.  Sitka  is  the  capital  of  Alaska.  Juneau 
is  a  thriving  mining  town,  and  Cape  Nome  is  one  of  the 
most  important  mining  settlements  in  the  West.  St.  Michael 
and  Circle  City  are  important  trading  posts.  Skagway  and 
Dawson  are  also  places  of  importance.  The' city  of  Nome 
is  located  on  the  north  shore  of  Bering  Sea,  about  120  miles 
northwest  of  the  island  of  St.  Michael,  and  is  about  2,500 
miles  from  Seattle.  It  takes  its  name  from  Cape  Nome,  a 
rocky  promontory 


Moonlight  on  Lake  Tahoe. 


60 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Mountains.  The  principal 
mountains  of  Alaska  are:  Mount 
McKinley,  named  after  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  20,464  feet 
high,  which  is  the  highest  mountain 
in  North  America ;  Mount  Wrangell, 
19,400;  Mount  St.  Elias,  18,100; 
Mount  Crillon,  15,900;  Mount  Cook, 
16,000. 
QUESTIONS  OK  THE  PACIFIC  STATES. 

Locate  Oregon.  Describe  its  mountains. 
Tell  what  you  can  about  Crater  Lake. 
What  are  the  principal  products?  Name 
the  capital.  Give  its  principal  cities.  De- 
scribe Portland.  Where  is  the  State  Uni- 
versity located  ?  Why  is  its  climate  similar 
to  that  of  Washington?  For  what  is  Cali- 
fornia remarkable  ?  Locate  it.  Describe 
its  mountain  ranges.  Describe  its  valleys. 
Describe  its  river  systems.  What  are  the 
principal  products?  Locate  its  two  great 
mountains.  Name  five  of  its  principal 
cities.  What  is  the  largest  city  on  the  Pa- 
cific Coast  ?    Who  named  the  Golden  Gate  ? 

Locate  it.  Locate  Alaska.  Tell  about  its  climate.  What  is  peculiar 
about  its  days  and  nights?  What  are  its  principal  products?  Describe 
the  Yukon  Biver.    Where  is  Cape  Nome  ?    For  what  is  it  noted  ?    What 


The  Muir  Glacier,  Alaska. 

is  the  capital  of  Alaska?    How  is  the  country  governed  ' 
native  races  of  the  country.     What  is  the  highest  mountain 
For  what  is  Alaska  noted? 


Name  the 
iu  Alaska? 


SEARCH  QUESTIONS 


Locations.  What  continents  lie  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere? 
What  continents  lie  in  the  Western  Hemisphere?  Locate  the  North 
Pole  and  the  South  Pole.  Locate  the  state  of  Washington.  Which  is 
the  largest  county  in  Washington?  Find  the  latitude  and  longitude 
of  Seattle.  Of  Spokane.  If  Seattle  is  in  about  the  same  latitude  as 
Halifax,  why  is  it  colder  in  Halifax  than  in  Seattle?  Locate  the  oceans. 
Compare  the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres  as  to  land  and  water. 

Rivers.  Name  the  four  principal  rivers  of  North  America.  If 
you  were  to  take  a  boat  and  go  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Columbia 
Kiver  to  its  mouth,  through  what  states  would  you  pass?  Name  the 
principal  natural  features  you  would  see  en  route.     Name  five  of  the 


principal  towns  you  would  pass.     About  how 
far  apart  are  the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri 


Indian  Deerskin  Dance.     Humboldt  County,  California. 


■rV'illr- 


The  Fur  Seal  of  Pribilof. 

and  Columbia  rivers.  Name  the  five  principal  rivers  that  flow  into  the 
Pacific  Ocean.    Name  the  five  principal  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Atlantic. 

Mountains.  Which  is  the  highest  mountain  in  North  America? 
Where  is  it  located?  Which  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Washington? 
Name  the  highest  mountain  in  California.     In  Mexico. 

Population.  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Pacific 
Coast.  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  New  Pacific.  What 
part  of  North  America  is  most  thickly  populated?  What  part  has  the 
fewest  people?  How  many  of  the  five  principal  races  live  in  the 
United  States? 

Natural  Products.  Make  a  list  of  the  ten  chief  food  products  of 
North  America.  Tell  where  each  one  grows.  Do  corn  and  coffee 
grow  in  the  same  climate?  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  mineral  products 
of  North  America.  Of  Washington.  If  you  were  to  send  a  ship  from 
Puget  Sound  to  Asia,  what  natural  products  would  make  up  its  cargo? 

Industries.  Name  five  of  the  leading  industries  of  Washington. 
Of  Mexico.  What  is  the  principal  industry  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands? 
Search  the  industrial  and  relief  map  of  the  United  States  and  name 
each  industry  represented  in  the  pictures  shown. 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Outline  Map  of  the  United  States. 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES.  . 

The  six  states  in  the  extreme  northeastern  part  of  the 
United  States  of  America  are  called  New  England.  These 
states  have  a  well-educated,  industrious  population,  and 
fine  school  systems.  They  are  more  densely  populated 
than  any  other  section  of  the  United  States.  Thousands 
of  people  spend  their  summer  vacations  in  the  beautiful 
mountain  and  lake  regions  in  the  northern  part  of  these 
states.  These  six  states  known  as  New  England  are 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Connecticut. 


MAINE. 

Maine,  "the  Pine  Tree  State," 
is  the  largest  of  the  New  England 
States,  and  is  the  extreme  north- 
easterly state  of  the  Union.  About 
one  half  of  the  surface  of  Maine  is 
covered  with  forests  of  pine,  spruce, 
hemlock,  and  birch,  which  supply 
much  valuable  lumber,  and  material 
for  wood  pulp.     The  state  is  also 


j      ■-,■_. 


Plymouth  Rock 
61 


noted  for  its  excellent  farm  products.  Ship-building  and 
fishing  are  important  industries.  The  principal  city  is  the 
seaport  of  Portland.  An  extensive  trade  is  carried  on  at 
this  port  with  Canada  and  England,  and  its  commerce  with 
the  West  Indies  is  also  large.  Bangor  is  the  great  lumber 
market  of  the  state.  Augusta,  situated  on  the  Kennebec 
River,  is  the  capital.  Biddeford,  Saco,  and  Lewiston  are 
important  towns.  Bath  is  famous  for  its  lumber  trade  and 
ship-building.  Rockland  supplies  most  of  the  lime  used  in 
the  Eastern  States. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

New  Hampshire,  "the  Granite 
State,"  has  a  population  largely  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  and  in  quarrying 
stone.  Concord  is  the  capital,  and 
is  celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of 
wagons  and  coaches.  Manchester, 
Nashua,  Dover,  Keene,  and  Great 
Falls  are  thriving  manufacturing 
towns.  Hanover,  in  this  state,  is 
the  seat  of  Dartmouth  College. 


62 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


VERMONT. 

Vermont,  "the  Green  Mountain  State  "  (French,  vert, 
green;  mout,  mountain),  is  a  fine  wool-growing,  stock-rais- 
ing, and  dairying  country,  and  is  especially  famed  for  its 
horses .  The  maple  sugar  of  Vermont  is  also  a  noted  product . 
Burlington,  located  on  Lake  Champlain,  is  the  largest  city. 
Rutland  and  St.  Albans  are  important  centers  of  trade. 
Montpelier  is  the  capital. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Massachusetts,  "the  Bay  State,"   or  "the  Old  Col- 
ony," is  the  wealthiest  and  most  populous  of  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  and  in  manufactures  and  commerce  is  one  of 


Faneuil  Hall,  Boston.     "  The  Cradle  of  Liberty." 

the  most  prominent  states  of  the  Union.  Boston,  the  cap- 
ital of  Massachusetts,  is  the  largest  city  in  New  England. 
It  is  noted  for  its  libraries,  public  schools,  and  places  of  his- 
toric interest.  Bunker  Hill  Monument,  Faneuil  Hall,  and 
the  Old  South  Church  are  sacred  to  those  who  love  Amer- 
ican institutions.  Cambridge,  the  seat  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, is  a  place  of  historic  interest.  It  was  here  that 
Washington  took  command  of  the  American  forces.  The 
largest  manufacturing  establishments  are  at  Lowell,  Fall 


River,  and  Lawrence.  Worcester,  the  second  city  in  size, 
is  a  great  railroad  and  manufacturing  center.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Clark  University.  Springfield  is  the  location  of  a 
United  States  arsenal,  and  from  this  city  the  Springfield  rifle, 
which  has  been  used  for  years  by  the  United  States  army, 
derives  its  name.  This  arsenal  was  made  famous,  also,  by 
Longfellow's  poem,  "  The  Arsenal  at  Springfield."  Lynn 
is  famous  for  its  manufactures  of  women's  shoes.  New  Bed- 
ford was  formerly  the  greatest  whaling  port  in  the  world. 
Taunton  is  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  locomotives,  cot- 
ton machinery,  and  britannia-ware.  Massachusetts,  how- 
ever, will  be  more  appreciated  by  the  pupils  of  the  public 
schools  for  the  literature  it  has  given  to  the  world.  Long- 
fellow, Holmes,  Hawthorne,  Lowell,  and  Emerson  were  all 
residents  of  this  state. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Rhode  Island  is  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union.  Its 
J  chief  manufactures  are  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  machinery, 
t  fire-arms,  and  jewelry.    It  has  two  state  capitals.    Newport, 

one  of  them,  is  situated  on  a  fine  harbor,  and  is  noted  as  a 
j  watering-place.  Providence,  the  other  capital,  has  a  large 
'.  commerce,  and  manufactures  extensively  cotton  goods  and 

silverware.     It  is  the  seat  of  Brown  University. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Connecticut,  "  the  Blue  Law  State,"  and  "  the  Land  of 

Steady  Habits,"  manufactures  almost  half  of  the  hardware, 

more  than  half  of  the  table-ware,  and  most  of  the  pins 

I  and  clocks  used  in  the  United  States.     The  valley  of  the 

Connecticut  is  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  state,  and  is  noted 

for  its  fine  tobacco  crops.     Hartford  is  the  capital,  and  is 

I  the  center  of  large  fire  and  life  insurance  and  manufacturing 

|  interests.     New  Haven   ("the  City  of  Elms"),  on  Long 

Island  Sound,  is  the  seat  of  Yale  College.     Bridgeport,  New 

London,  Norwich,  Waterbury,  Meriden,  and  Danbury  are 

large  and  prosperous  towns. 

QUESTIONS  ON  NEW  ENGLAND. 
Which  is  the  largest  New  England  state?  In  what  does  it  excel? 
Name  the  principal  city  in  Maine.  What  is  said  of  Portland?  Name 
several  of  the  important  manufacturing  towns  in  Maine.  What  and 
where  is  Augusta?  What  is  said  of  Bath?  Why  is  New  Hampshire 
called  "the  Granite  State"?  Name  several  of  the  principal  industries 
of  New  Hampshire.  What  is  said  of  Concord?  Name  the  largest  city 
in  New  Hampshire.  Name  several  of  the  manufacturing  towns.  Where 
is  Dartmouth  College?  What  does  the  name  "  Vermont  "  mean?  What 
are  the  most  important  industries  of  Vermont?  In  what  does  it  excel  all 
states?  Name  its  principal  cities.  What  is  the  rank  of  Massachusetts 
as  a  New  England  state?  Tell  what  you  can  about  its  commerce.  What 
is  the  principal  commercial  city  of  New  England?  For  what  is  it  dis- 
tinguished? What  university  is  located  at  Cambridge?  What  places 
of  historic  interest  are  in  Boston?  What  university  is  located  at  Wor- 
cester? For  what  is  Springfield  noted?  What  great  literary  men  have 
lived  in  Massachusetts?  Which  is  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union? 
Where  is  Newport,and  for  what  is  it  noted?  What  state  in  the  Union 
has  two  capitals?  Which  state  in  the  Union  manufactures  most  of  the 
pins,  clocks,  and  table-ware?  From  what  state  in  the  Union  do  we  get 
most  of  our  hardware?  Where  is  Hartford?  For  what  is  New  Haven 
noted?  For  what  is  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  noted?  Name  several 
of  tl)i'  important  towns  of  Connecticut. 


The  Middle  Atlantic  States. 


63 


THE  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 

NORTHERN  DIVISION. 

The  northern  division  of  what  are  called  the  Middle  At- 
lantic States  is  composed  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 

Pennsylvania. 

NEW  YORK. 

New  York,  "the  Empire  State,"  is  the  most  important 
state  in  the  Union,  and  ranks  first  in  wealth,  population, 
manufactures,  and  commerce.  The  climate  of  western  New 
York  is  tempered  by  the  lakes.  It  is  a  fine  farming  country. 
Wheat,  corn,  and  fruits  flourish.  This  state  is  famous  for 
its  butter,  hay,  hops,  and  grapes.  It  abounds  in  beautiful 
natural  scenery.  The  Niagara  Falls  are  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable natural  wonders  of  the  world.  The  falls  have  a 
descent  of  300  feet,  the  power  from  which  has  of  late  years 
been  utilized  for  operating  great  electric  generating  plants 
and  numerous  large  manufactories.  New  York  City  is  the 
largest  and  richest  city  in  the  United  States.  By  the  an- 
nexation of  suburban  cities  it  now  forms  what  is  called 
Greater  New  York.  Brooklyn,  now  a  part  of  Greater  New 
York,  is  connected  with  the  city  proper  by  the  longest  sus- 
pension bridge  in  the  world.  New  York  City  is  noted  for 
its  fine  public  and  private  libraries  and  churches,  palatial 
residences,  handsome  park,  and  other  attractions.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Columbia  University  and  of  the  University  of  New 
York.  Albany  is  the  capital  of  the  state,  and  is  an  impor- 
tant inland  city.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Hudson,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Erie  Canal.  Buffalo,  on  Lake 
Erie,  is  an  important  city,  with  an  enterprising  business 
population  and  a  constant  growth.  Rochester,  on  the  Gen- 
esee, and  Oswego,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oswego  River,  pos- 
sess fine  water-power,  and  are  extensively  engaged  in  man- 
ufacturing and  milling.  Near  Rochester  are  located  some 
noted  nurseries  of  fruits  and  flowers.  Syracuse  is  noted  for 
its  salt-springs  and  salt-works.  Troy  has  ample  water- 
power,  and  is  largely  engaged  in  manufacturing.  The 
country  bordering  on  the  Hudson  River  is  noted  for  its 
handsome  homes  and  beautiful  grounds,  and  the  highlands 
of  the  Hudson  are  noted  for  the  grandeur  of  their  scenery. 
The  National  Military  Academy  at  West  Point  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  this  beautiful  river. 


Castle  Garden,  New  York,  the  Statue  of  Liberty  in  tie  Distance, 


Niagara  Falls  by  Moonlight. 

NEW  JERSEY. 
New  Jersey  is  famous  for  its  fruits.  Its  gardens  largely 
supply  New  York  and  Philadelphia  with  vegetables.  New 
Jersey  is  also  rich  in  mines  of  iron  and  zinc.  Newark,  the 
largest  city  in  the  state,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of 
india-rubber,  leather  goods,  clothing,  and  jewelry.  Pater- 
son,  at  the  falls  of  the  Passaic  River,  is  noted  for  its  loco- 
motive-works and  manufactures  of  silk  goods.  Princeton 
is  the  seat  of  Princeton  University. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

Pennsylvania,  "the  Keystone  State,"  is  the  leading 
mining  state  of  the  Union.  Coal,  coal  oil,  and  iron  are  its 
chief  products.  Anthracite  coal  is  found  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state,  and  bituminous  coal  is  found  in  the  west- 
ern part.  The  crude  oil  is  pumped  from  the  wells  to  the 
seaport  and  lake  cities  through  iron  pipes,  and  is  expbrted 
to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  soil  and  climate  are  weH 
adapted,  and  the  crops  of  grain  and  tobacco,  as  well  as 
grazing  products,  are  important.  Philadelphia  is  the  thii 
city  in  manufacturing,  commerce,  and  population  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  schools,  charitable 
institutions,  and  historic  buildings.  The  Old  State  House, 
where  the  Declaration  of  Independence  of  the  United  States 
was  signed,  July  4,  1776,  is  located  in  Philadelphia,  and 
in  Independence  Hall  hangs  the  old  "  Liberty  Bell."    Pitts- 


64 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


City  Hall,  New  York  City. 

burg,  the  second  city  in  the  state,  and  Allegheny,  which 
ranks  next  in  size,  are  on  the  Ohio  River.  These  cities  are 
largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  glass. 
Harrisburg  is  the  capital,  and  is  largely  interested  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  NORTHERN  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 

How  does  New  York  rank  in  wealth,  in  population,  in  commerce, 
and  in  manufactures?  What  are  the  principal  products  of  New  York? 
What  is  said  of  New  York  City?  What  is  said  of  the  suspension  bridge  ? 
What  is  said  of  Rochester  and  Oswego?  Of  Troy?  Where  is  West 
Point?  For  what  is  New  Jersey  famous?  What  minerals  does  this 
state  produce?  What  is  said  of  Princeton?  In  what  does  Pennsyl- 
vania surpass  other  states?  What  part  of  the  state  produces  anthra- 
cite coal?  What  is  said  of  petroleum?  What  is  said  of  Philadelphia? 
Name  its  most  famous  building.  What  does  Pittsburg  manufacture? 
What  is  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Pennsylvania? 


THE  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 

SOUTHERN  DIVISION. 

The  southern  division  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  is 
composed  of  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia, 
and  the  District  of  Columbia. 

DELAWARE. 

Delaware,  "the  Diamond  State,"  is  second  to  Rhode 
Island  in  size.  Its  soil  is  well  adapted  to  fruit  and  vegetables. 
Dover,  situated  inland,  is  the  capital.  Wilmington  is  the 
largest  city  of  the  state.  The  manufacture  of  cars,  iron, 
wooden  ships,  and  leather  is  extensively  carried  on. 

MARYLAND. 
Maryland,  "the  Old  Line  State,"  has  a  climate  and  soil 
favorable  to  the  production  of  peaches,  small  fruit,  and  a 
high  grade  of  tobacco.  Chesapeake  Bay  extends  far  inland, 
and  has  the  finest  oyster-beds  in  the  world.  This  state  also 
yields  a  variety  of  minerals.  Annapolis  is  the  capital,  and 
is  the  seat  of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy,  situated  on 
Chesapeake  Bay.     Baltimore  is  the  chief  city.     The  Johns 


Hopkins  Institute,  the  Peabody  Institute,  and  other  notable 
institutions  of  learning,  are  located  in  this  city. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

The  District  op  Columbia  contains  sixty-four  square 
miles,  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Maryland,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Potomac  River,  as  a  site  for  the  national  capital, 
Washington  City.  The  district  is  governed  by  three  com- 
missioners appointed  by  the  President,  and  its  laws  are 
made  by  Congress.  The  people  living  in  this  district  have 
no  voice  in  the  election  of  their  own  officers,  or  of  those  of 
the  general  government. 

VIRGINIA. 

Virginia,  "the  Mother  of  Presidents,"  is  noted  for  its 
tobacco,  ranking  next  to  Kentucky  in  the  production  of 
this  article.  Its  peanut  crop  is  the  largest  in  the  country, 
and  it  produces  large  quantities  of  wheat.  Virginia  is  rich 
in  iron  and  other  minerals,  and  has  some  valuable  lumber 
regions.  Richmond  is  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  the 
state,  and  is  a  place  of  historic  interest.  Mount  Vernon, 
the  country  seat  of  George  Washington,  lies  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Potomac,  a  few  miles  below  Washington  City. 
The  house  contains  many  valuable  relics,  and  near  it  is 
Washington's  tomb.  Norfolk  and  Newport  News  are  im- 
portant ports.  There  is  a  United  States  navy-yard  at  Nor- 
folk. One  of  the  largest  ship-building  plants  in  the  coun- 
try is  located  at  Newport  News.  Lynchburg,  Petersburg, 
and  Roanoke  deal  extensively  in  tobacco  and  other  produce. 
The  Natural  Bridge  of  Virginia  is  a  beautiful  arch  two 
hundred  feet  above  a  small  river  that  flows  into  the  James 
River,  in  the  western  part  of  the  state. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

West  Virginia,  "the  Panhandle  State,"  was  separated 
from  Virginia,  and  formed  another  state,  in  1863.  The  soil 
in  the  western  part  of  the  state  is  exceedingly  fertile  and 
productive.  The  eastern  portion  is  mountainous.  The  state 
is  rich  in  coal,  iron,  petroleum,  natural  gas,  and  salt,  and 
produces  large  quantities  of  coke.  Charleston  is  the  capital 
of  the  state.  Wheeling  is  the  most  important  city,  and  is 
located  on  the  Ohio  River.  It  is  largely  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron.  Huntington  is  an  important  shipping- 
point  for  coal  and  iron,  and  Parkersburg,  in  the  oil  region, 
is  quite  a  trade  center. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  SOUTHERN  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 

How  does  Delaware  compare  in  size  with  the  other  states  of  the 
Union?  What  are  the  products?  What  is  the  capital?  the  largest  city? 
What  articles  are  extensively  manufactured  in  this  state?  What  is 
said  of  the  products  of  Maryland?  What  is  said  of  its  oyster-beds? 
What  important  academy  is  located  at  Annapolis?  What  is  the  largest 
city  in  Maryland?  What  is  the  area  of  the  District  of  Columbia?  Of 
what  important  city  is  it  the  site?  How  is  it  governed?  For  what 
product  is  Virginia  chiefly  noted?  What  is  the  capital  and  the  largest 
city  in  the  state?  Where  is  Mount  Vernon,  and  for  what  is  it  noted? 
What  are  the  manufacturing  industries  of  Virginia?  Name  a  remark- 
able natural  curiosity  of  Virginia.  What  is  said  of  the  origin  of  West 
Virginia?  Name  the  capital.  What  is  the  chief  city?  Name  the  min 
eral  products  of  West  Virginia.    Name  the  most  important  trade  centers. 


The  Southern  States. 


65 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES. 

North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Ala- 
bama, Tennessee,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  Texas, 
Oklahoma  Territory,  and  Indian  Territory  comprise  this 
group.  The  surface  of  these  states  is  low  and  level,  except 
where  broken  by  the  extension  of  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains in  the  east  and  the  Ozark  Mountains  in  the  west.  The 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  are  swampy,  and  tide-water  runs 
far  up  the  rivers.  The  summers,  throughout  this  region, 
are  long  and  hot.  Snow  falls  over  most  of  it  during  the 
winters,  but  remains  only  a  short  time.  Frost  rarely  occurs 
as  far  south  as  Florida.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry  of 
these  states.  Cotton  is  the  most  important  product.  The 
manufacture  of  iron  and  cotton  goods  is  increasing  rapidly. 
These  states  raise  three  times  as  much  cotton  as  all  the  rest 
of  the  world.  Sugar-cane,  rice,  resin,  turpentine,  and  iron 
are  also  important  products. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

North  Carolina,  "the  Old  North  State,"  has  valuable 
pine  forests  and  excellent  farming  land  on  the  coastal  plains, 
and  the  central  and  western  parts  abound  in  minerals. 
Swamps  cover  nearly  four  thousand  square  miles  in  this 
state.  The  pine  forests  yield  abundantly  of  turpentine, 
pitch,  tar,  and  resin.  Raleigh  is  the  capital.  Wilmington 
is  the  largest  city,  and  is  an  important  market. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

South  Carolina,  "the  Palmetto  State,"  has  a  mild  and 
healthful  climate.  In  the  region  of  the  foothills  there  are 
many  beautiful  cataracts,  and  the  pine-lands  have  many 
noted  health  resorts.  Cotton,  rice,  and  sugar-cane  are  the 
most  important  products.  There  are  also  valuable  phos- 
phate deposits  in  this  state.  Charleston  has  a  fine  harbor, 
and  is  the  most  important  seaport.  Columbia,  the  state 
capital,  and  Greenville  are  thriving  manufacturing  towns. 

GEORGIA. 

Georgia,  "the  Empire  State  of  the  South,"  has  pro- 
ducts of  cotton,  turpentine,  and  resin;  it  also  produces  the 
largest  peach  crop  of  any  state  in  the  Union.  It  is  rich  in 
minerals,  abounding  in  iron,  marble,  and  slate.  Atlanta 
is  the  largest  city,  and  is  a  growing  cotton-manufacturing 
center.  Savannah,  located  on  the  Savannah  River,  is  one 
of  the  great  markets  of  the  world  for  cotton,  rice,  lumber, 
turpentine,  and  pitch.  Augusta,  Macon,  and  Columbus 
manufacture  cotton  goods. 

FLORIDA. 

Florida,  "the  Peninsula  State,"  along  its  Atlantic  coast 
line,  has  many  sand-bars,  and  at  the  south  there  is  a  con- 
tinuous coral  reef,  broken  here  and  there  by  channels.  This 
reef  is  called  the  Florida  Keys,  the  word  "key,"  from  the 
Spanish  cayo,  meaning  islet.  The  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula,  called  "the  Everglades,"  is  broken  by  shallow 
channels  of  water,  running  in  all  directions,  forming  wooded 
islands,  grassy  regions,  swamps,  and  lakes.     The  climate  is 


Agricultural  Department,  Washington  City. 

very  much  modified  by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  also  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  flows  on  its 
eastern  shore.  Its  winters  are  therefore  very  mild,  and 
the  summer  seasons  are  of  moderate  temperature.  For 
these  reasons  it  has  become  noted  as  a  winter  and  health 
resort,  a  land  of  orange  groves,  pineapples,  and  cocoa- 
nuts, —  the  only  tropical  region  in  the  United  States,  except 
southern  California.  Florida  raises  fruits  and  vegetables 
for  the  early  Northern  markets.  It  also  produces  rice  and 
sugar-cane.  Lumbering  is  an  important  industry.  Jack- 
sonville is  the  largest  city  and  chief  seaport.  It  is  a  very 
popular  winter  resort.  St.  Augustine,  an  early  Spanish 
settlement,  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  state.  Key  West,  on  a 
coral  island  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  state,  manufac- 
tures cigars,  and  is  the  chief  market  for  sponges.  Pensa- 
cola  and  Tampa  are  important  shipping  ports. 

ALABAMA. 

Alabama  is  crossed  by  a  timber  belt  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  state.  The  central  part  is  devoted  to  agriculture. 
The  northern  part  is  hill}',  and  contains  vast  sto:-es  of  iron 
and  coal.  This  state  ranks  among  the  first  iron-producing 
states  of  the  country.  Birmingham  is  noted  for  its  manu- 
facture of  this  product.  Montgomery  is  a  trade  center  for 
the  surrounding  country.     Mobile  is  the  largest  city  in  the 


Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington  City. 


66 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


state,  and  is  a  great  shipping  port  for  lumber,  cotton,  and 
Southern  products. 

MISSISSIPPI. 
Mississippi,  "  the  Mudcat  State,"  ranks  among  the  first 
cotton-producing  states  of  the  South.  The  state  is  traversed 
by  a  broad,  low  ridge  from  north  to  south.  The  lowlands 
adjacent  to  the  Mississippi  River,  which  are  cut  up  by 
bayous  that  branch  off  all  along  that  stream,  are  remark- 
ably fertile  and  productive.  Vicksburg  is  the  largest  city. 
Meridian  is  a  trade  center  for  eastern  Mississippi.  Much 
cotton  is  shipped  from  Natchez. 

TENNESSEE. 

Tennessee,  "the  Big  Bend  State,"  is  undulating  in  its 
central  portion,  and  is  devoted  to  wheat,  corn,  hemp,  and 
tobacco.  Blue  grass  thrives  here,  and  stock-raising  is  profi- 
table. In  the  western  part  of  the  state  the  soil  is  well 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton  and  tobacco.  This  is 
the  chief  manufacturing  state  of  the  South.  The  output  of 
the  factories  is  cottonseed  oil,  iron  and  steel,  woolen  goods, 
flour,  and  lumber.  The  eastern  part  of  Tennessee  has  very 
valuable  mines  of  iron,  copper,  zinc,  and  quarries  of  an 
excellent  quality  of  marble.  Memphis  is  the  most  important 
cotton  market  of  the  country.  Chattanooga  manufactures 
much  iron  and  steel.  Nashville,  the  capital,  and  Knox- 
ville,  in  eastern  Tennessee,  are  important  trade  centers. 
From  the  summit  of  Lookout  Mountain,  near  Chattanooga, 
there  is  a  fine  view  of  the  Tennessee  River  and  the  surround- 
ing country. 

LOUISIANA. 

Louisiana,  "the  Pelican  State,"  in  its  northern  and 
western  parts,  is  upland,  having  a  fertile  soil  and  heavy 
forests.  The  delta  of  the  Mississippi  River,  formed  by  the 
accumulation  of  alluvia  that  have  been  swept  down  this 
large  stream  for  ages,  is  exceedingly  fertile.  More  sugar- 
cane and  rice  is  produced  in  Louisiana  than  in  any  other 
state.  Cotton,  also,  is  largely  cultivated.  New  Orleans  is 
the  largest  city  in  the  South.  It  is  situated  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, about  one  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  banks  called  jetties  have  been  con- 
structed so  as  to  confine  the  water  of  the  river,  and  by  the 
action  of  the  current  the  sand-bars  have  been  carried  away, 
and  a  channel  opened  to  the  city  from  the  gulf  for  the 
largest  vessels,  thus  making  New  Orleans  a  great  shipping 
port.  A  large  part  of  the  population  of  this  city  are  of 
French  or  Spanish  descent,  called  Creoles,  and  speak  the 
French  language.  Shreveport  ranks  second  in  population, 
and  also  as  a  cotton  market.     Baton  Rouge  is  the  capital. 

ARKANSAS. 

Arkansas,  "  the  Bear  State,"  is  mountainous  and  broken 
in  its  northern  part.  In  the  eastern  part  are  many  small 
lakes,  bayous,  and  swamps.  It  is  heavily  wooded.  It  pro- 
duces some  coal,  but  its  most  important  products  are  lum- 
ber, cotton,  corn,  and  peaches.  Little  Rock  is  the  capital, 
and  most  important  city.  Hot  Springs  is  a  widely  known 
health  resort.     There  are  many  springs,  ranging   from  a 


low  to  a  quite  high  temperature,  which  are  reputed  to  cure 
various  diseases.  Fort  Smith  and  Pine  Bluff  are  other 
cities  of  importance. 

TEXAS. 
Texas,  "  the  Lone  Star  State,"  has  more  than  four  times 
the  area  of  all  the  New  England  States.  It  was  for  a  time 
a  part  of  Mexico,  but  afterwards  became  an  independent 
republic,  and  was  finally  admitted  into  the  Union.  The 
eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  state  produce  large  quan- 
tities of  cotton,  corn,  and  other  agricultural  products.  The 
northern  and  central  portion  is  devoted  to  stock-raising, 
and  produces  more  sheep  and  cattle  than  any  other  part  of 
the  country.  In  the  western  part  of  the  state  is  a  barren 
plateau,  called  the  "  Staked  Plain."  The  name  is  taken 
from  the  only  plant  that  is  found  there,  the  yuccas,  which 
stand  like  stakes  over  the  plain.  Dallas,  San  Antonio,  Gal- 
veston, an  important  seaport  on  the  gulf,  and  Houston  are 
the  largest  cities.  Fort  Worth  and  Waco  are  other  im- 
portant railway  centers.  Austin,  the  capital,  is  a  thriving 
commercial  point. 

INDIAN  TERRITORY. 

This  territory  has  been  allotted  by  the  government  to 
various  tribes  of  Indians.  Each  tribe,  removed  from  other 
parts  of  the  country,  has  been  given  a  definite  area,  called 
a  reservation.  Five  civilized  tribes — -Cherokee,  Chickasaw, 
Choctaw,  Creek,  and  Seminole  nations — have  large  reser- 
vations. The  population  numbers  about  175,000,  less  than 
one  third  of  whom  are  Indians.  Many  white  men  and 
negroes  have  become  citizens  of  the  nations,  under  their 
local  laws.  Indian  Territory  is  not  governed  as  other  ter- 
ritories organized  under  the  general  laws  of  the  United 
States.  Each  tribe  has  its  own  chief,  legislative  body, 
treasurer,  and  other  officers,  who  are  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Bureau  of  Indian  Affairs  at  Washington  City.  The 
money  due  the  nations,  as  they  are  called,  for  the  sale  of 
their  lands  is  held  in  trust  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, and  the  interest  is  paid  annually  to  the  treasurer  of 
each  nation.  The  land  is  held  in  common,  but  a  citizen  of 
the  reservation  may  use  whatever  land  he  can  fence  in. 
Many  enterprising  Indians  have  large  farms,  which  they 
lease  at  a  good  profit  to  white  and  black  men. 

The  Cherokee  Nation  has  a  good  government  and  excel- 
lent schools.     Tahlequah  is  the  chief  town. 

The  Creek  Nation  has  its  capital  at  Okmulgee.  On  this 
reservation  is  Muscogee,  the  chief  commercial  town,  where 
is  located  the  United  States  court  for  the  territory. 

The  Choctaw  Nation  has  the  largest  reservation. 

The  Chickasaw  Nation  has  the  largest  population,  mostly 
white  men. 

The  Seminole  Nation  is  the  wildest  and  much  the  smallest 
of  the  five  nations. 

OKLAHOMA  TERRITORY. 

Oklahoma  was  purchased  from  the  Indians  and  separated 
from  the  Indian  Territory  in  1890,  when  it  was  opened  for 
settlement  to  the  white  man.  Other  additions  have  been 
made  to  it  since  that  date.     The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  the 


The  Southern  States.  —  The  Central  States. 


67 


climate  is  equable,  so  that  most  of  the  products  of  the  North- 
ern and  Southern  states  may  be  raised,  though  the  agri- 
cultural qualities  of  the  country  are  not  yet  fully  developed. 
It  has  a  territorial  government.  Guthrie,  the  capital,  and 
Oklahoma  are  the  most  important  towns. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES. 
What  states  are  called  the  Southern  States  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
surface  of  this  region  ?  What  is  the  chief  industry  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  climate?  What  are  the  chief  products  of  North  Carolina?  Name 
the  capital.  Largest  city.  What  is  the  climate  of  South  Carolina? 
What  are  its  products?  What  is  the  principal  seaport?  Name  the 
capital.  What  are  the  agricultural  products  of  Georgia?  Mineral  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  peach  crop  ?  What  is  said  of  the  manufactures  ? 
Name  the  most  important  cities.  What  is  said  of  the  coast  of  Florida  ? 
Where  are  the  Florida  Keys  ?  From  what  is  the  word  ' '  key  ' '  derived  ? 
What  are  the  Everglades?  What  is  said  of  the  climate  of  Florida? 
What  is  the  Gulf  Stream  ?  What  are  the  productions  of  Florida  ?  Name 
the  most  important  cities.  What  are  the  most  important  agricultural 
and  mineral  products  of  Alabama?  What  article  is  extensively  man- 
ufactured in  this  state  ?  Name  an  important  seaport.  What  are  the 
principal  towns  ?  For  what  product  is  Mississippi  noted  ?  What  is  a 
bayou?  What  is  said  of  the  lowlands?  Name  the  most  important 
cities.  What  are  the  agricultural  products  of  Tennessee?  What  is 
said  of  its  manufactures  ?  What  are  the  mineral  products?  Name  its 
important  cities.  Name  a  historic  mountain  of  this  state.  What  is 
said  of  the  surface  and  soil  of  Louisiana?  What  is  the  delta  of  the 
Mississippi?  What  are  the  chief  products  ?  What  is  the  largest  city  ? 
Where  situated  ?  What  is  meant  by  Creole  ?  What  language  is  spoken 
by  the  Creoles  of  New  Orleans  ?  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  surface  of  Arkansas?  What  are  the  products?  What  is  the 
capital  ?  What  town  is  a  noted  health  resort  in  this  state  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  size  of  Texas  ?  Of  what  country  was  Texas  formerly  a 
part  ?  What  are  the  most  important  agricultural  products  ?  For  what 
industry  is  this  state  chiefly  noted  ?  What  is  the  Staked  Plain  ?  Name  a 
prominent  seaport  and  the  important  towns  of  this  state.  For  what 
use  was  the  Indian  Territory  set  aside  by  the  government  ?  Name  the 
five  civilized  tribes  of  Indian  nations.  What  is  said  of  the  population  ? 
How  are  the  tribes  governed?  Name  the  important  towns.  When 
was  Oklahoma  opened  for  settlement?  What  is  the  form  of  govern- 
ment ?     What  is  the  capital  ? 

THE  CENTRAL  STATES. 

Kentucky,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  South  Da- 
kota, and  North  Dakota  form  the  group  called  the  Central 
States. 

In  this  region  are  the  great  basins  of  the  Ohio,  Missouri, 
and  upper  Mississippi  rivers.  In  the  northern  parts  of 
Wisconsin  and  Michigan  are  elevations  over  a  thousand 
feet  high.  In  the  western  part  of  Nebraska,  North  Dakota, 
and  South  Dakota  is  a  rough  country,  where  colored  rocks 
have  been  worn  by  the  action  of  water  into  fantastic  shapes, 
and  canons  with  steep  walls,  which  country  has  been  called 
by  the  Indians  the  "  Bad  Lands,"  because  bad  for  travel- 
ing. Southern  Missouri  is  broken  by  the  Ozark  Mountains, 
and  eastern  Kentucky  by  the  Cumberland  Mountains.  The 
regions  near  the  rivers  are  rolling,  and  often  covered  with 
timber.  The  term  "prairie,"  a  French  word  meaning 
meadows,  is  applied  to  the  grassy  plains  of  the  Mississippi 
basin.  The  surface  is  level,  or  slightly  undulating,  and  no 
trees  grow,  except  along  the  banks  of  watercourses.     The 


soil  is  adapted  to  raising  different  kinds  of  grain,  especially 
corn  aud  wheat. 

Agriculture  is  the  most  important  industry  of  this  sec- 
tion, which  is  the  chief  granary  of  the  United  States.  Corn, 
wheat,  oats,  and  live-stock  are  the  great  products.  Ken- 
tucky produces  nearly  half  of  the  tobacco  raised  in  this 
country.  Flax,  fruit,  and  vegetables  are  also  important 
products  of  the  Central  States. 

Iron  is  produced  in  large  quantities  in  Michigan,  Ohio, 
and  other  states  of  this  section,  as  well  as  coal  and  other 
minerals. 

WISCONSIN. 

Wisconsin,  "  the  Badger  State,"  is  an  important  stock- 
raising,  dairying,  and  agricultural  state,  producing  hay, 
wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  and  rye.  Lumber,  flour,  malt 
liquors,  leather,  woolen  goods,  and  meat  are  important 
manufactures. 

Milwaukee  is  the  largest  city,  and  is  noted  for  its  ma- 
chinery, tanneries,  beer,  and  smelting- works.  Superior  and 
Racine  have  large  manufactories,  and  do  an  extensive  com- 
merce on  the  lakes.  Oshkosh  and  La  Crosse  are  large  pro- 
ducers of  lumber.     Madison  is  the  capital. 

MICHIGAN. 

Michigan,  "the  Wolverine  State,"  in  its  southern  penin- 
sula, is  devoted  chiefly  to  agriculture  and  manufacturing. 
In  the  northern  portion  of  the  state  the  manufacture  of  salt 
and  lumber  is  carried  on  together,  the  refuse  lumber  from 
the  mills  furnishing  the  fuel  for  the  salt-pans,  by  which 
process  salt  is  made  very  cheaply.  This  state  produces  two 
fifths  of  the  iron  ore  of  the  country,  and  ranks  second  in 
the  production  of  copper.  Gypsum  and  fresh-water  fish 
are  important  productions. 

Detroit,  on  the  Detroit  River,  is  an  important  railway 
center,  and  its  blast-furnaces  turn  out  immense  quantities 
of  iron.  Grand  Rapids  is  largely  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  furniture.  Saginaw  and  Bay  City  are  large  lumber 
and  fish  markets.  Ann  Arbor  is  the  seat  of  the  University 
of  Michigan.     Lansing  is  the  capital. 

ILLINOIS. 

Illinois,  "the  Prairie  State,"  is  one  of  the  most  level 
and  best- watered  states  of  the  Union.  A  canal  has  been 
constructed  at  an  immense  cost,  connecting  Lake  Michigan, 
by  way  of  the  Chicago  and  Illinois  rivers,  with  the  Missis- 
sippi River.  More  horses  are  reared  in  Illinois  than  in  any 
other  state.  It  ranks  among  the  first  in  the  production  of 
corn,  wheat,  hay,  and  oats.  This  state  is  the  second  in  the 
Union  in  the  amount  of  its  manufactures.  It  makes  more 
watches  than  any  other  state. 

In  1830  only  a  few  houses  stood  where  now  the  city  of 
Chicago  covers  a  greater  area  than  any  other  city  in  the 
world.  It  is  the  greatest  lake  port  and  railroad  center  of 
this  country.  The  teinsactions  here  in  grain,  live-stock, 
lumber,  and  meat-packing  are  the  greatest  in  the  world. 
Peoria,  the  second  city  in  size,  has  large  factories  and 
distilleries.     Quincy,  Rockford,   and  Joliet  are  important 


68 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


manufacturing  and  trade  centers.  Spring- 
field, the  capital,  is  situated  in  a  coal-mining 
district. 

INDIANA. 

Indiana,  "the  Hoosier  State,"  is 
chiefly  an  agricultural  state,  producing 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and 
fruits.  Coal  and  iron  are  mined. 
The  eastern  part  of  the  state 
abounds  in  gas- wells,  which  sup- 
ply fuel  and  light  throughout  the 
state,  and  also  to  Chicago  and 
many  other  cities.  It  also  yields 
petroleum. 

The  manufactures  are  iron  and 
steel,  tin-plate,  wooden-ware,  woolen 
goods,  and  glass. 

Indianapolis,  the  largest  city,  is  a 
great  railway  center,  and  carries  on  an 
extensive  trade  with  the  surrounding 
country.  Evansville,  on  the  Ohio 
River,  is  the  main  shipping-point  for  the  southern  portion 
of  the  state.  Fort  Wayne,  Terre  Haute,  South  Bend,  and 
New  Albany  are  other  important  cities. 

OHIO. 

Ohio,  "the  Buckeye  State,"  ranks  first  in  agricultural 
and  dairying  products,  in  rearing  sheep  and  swine,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  earthenware  and  brick.  Corn,  wheat, 
oats,  and  tobacco  are  among  its  staple  products.  Apples, 
grapes,  and  small  fruits  are  raised.  The  state  has  valuable 
stone  quarries;  coal  and  iron  are  extensively  mined,  and 
there  are  products  of  petroleum,  salt,  and  natural  gas. 

Cleveland,  a  beautiful  city  on  Lake  Erie,  and  Cincinnati, 
on  the  Ohio  River,  are  the  largest  cities  in  the  state,  and 
both  are  important  manufacturing  and  commercial  centers. 
Toledo  and  Dayton  are  important  cities.  Columbus  is  cele- 
brated for  its  manufacture  of  wagons  and  carriages;  it  is 
the  capital  of  the  state.  Youngstown,  Springfield,  Canton, 
and  Akron  have  valuable  factories. 


KENTUCKY. 

Kentucky,  "  the  Dark  and  Bloody  Ground,"  also  called 
the  "Blue  Grass  State,"  is  devoted  to  agriculture  and  graz- 
ing.    One  third  of  its  area  is  covered  with  forests.     One 
of  the  greatest  natural  wonders  of  the  country,  known  as 
the  Mammoth  Cave,  is  found  in  the  limestone  region  of 
this  state,  where  there  are  many  caverns.      The  winding 
passages  of  the  Mammoth  Cave  penetrate  the  earth  for 
miles,  and  exhibit  many  curious  features  produced  by 
the  action  of  water  upon  its  walls, 
tains  a  stream  of  clear, 
limpid    water,    called 
Echo  River. 

This  state  is  noted 
the  world  over  for  its 
fine  horses.     It  is  first  In  the  Northwest. 


among   the  states  in  the  production  of 
tobacco,  hemp,  and  flax.     Its  coal-fields, 
iron-ore  beds,  and  stone  quarries  yield 
important  products. 

Louisville  is  known  as  the 
greatest  tobacco  market  in  the 
world.  Lexington  is  the  trade 
center  of  the  blue- grass  region. 
Frankfort  is  the  capital  of  the 
state. 

MINNESOTA. 

Minnesota,    "the    Gopher 

State,"  has  a  growth  of  timber 

on  more  than  half  its  area,  the 

remainder  being  prairie.      The 

state  has  numerous  picturesque 

lakes,  which  abound  with  fish.     The 

lake  regions  are  popular  as  summer 

resorts. 

More  wheat  is  produced  in  this  state 
than  in  any  other  in  the  Union.  The 
value  of  its  iron  mines  ranks  next  to  those  of  Michigan. 
Flour  and  lumber  are  its  chief  manufactures.  Minneapolis, 
the  largest  city,  is  noted  for  its  grain  market  and  flouring- 
mills.  St.  Paul  is  a  great  commercial  center.  Duluth,  sit- 
uated on  Lake  Superior,  is  a  great  shipping-point. 

IOWA. 

Iowa,  "the  Hawkeye  State,"  is  a  leading  state  in  the 
production  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  hay,  and  is  second 
in  the  production  of  flax.  There  are  many  lumber  mills, 
which  obtain  their  supply  of  logs  from  Minnesota  by  way 
of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Des  Moines  is  the  largest  city,  and  is  an  important  mar- 
ket for  the  products  of  the  state.  This  city  is  also  the  state 
capital.  Sioux  City,  Dubuque,  and  Davenport  are  trade 
centers.     Burlington  has  large  lumbering-mills. 


In  the  Northwest.     Alone  with  Nature 


MISSOURI. 

Missouri,  "the  Bullion  State,"  is  devoted  chiefly  to  agri- 
culture, and  has  a  wide  variety  of  products.  Its  yield  of 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  hay  is  large.  Two  thirds  of  the  zinc 
product  of  the  country,  and  vast  quantities  of  lead  and  iron, 
are  mined  in  the  southern  part  of  Missouri.  Coal  is  found 
in  plentiful  quantities  at  various  points. 

St.  Louis  is  the  largest  city  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.    This 
city  was  founded  by  the  French  in  1764.    It  forms  the  great 
depot  of  exchange  of  products  between  the  northern  and 
southern  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  an  important  manu- 
facturing center.     Kansas  City  is 
second  to  Chicago  as  a  live-stock 
and    meat-packing 
market   and   railroad 
center.     St.  Joseph  is 
an  important  trading 
point.    Jefferson  City 
Ojibway  Cemetery,  Cass  Lake  is  the  capital. 


The  Central  States. —  The  Mountain  and  Plateau  States. 


69 


KANSAS. 

Kansas,  "the  Squatter  State,"  in  its  eastern  part,  is 
undulating  and  quite  fertile,  merging  into  a  vast  prairie, 
reaching  away  to  the  west.  The  western  portion  is  dry  and 
unproductive.  Kansas  is  among  the  leading  states  in  the 
production  of  corn,  wheat,  and  live-stock. 

Coal,  lead,  and  zinc  are  important  mineral  products.  The 
salt  and  gypsum  regions  are  very  extensive. 

Kansas  City,  Kansas  (which,  in  effect,  is  a  part  of  Kan- 
sas City,  Missouri,  the  dividing  line  being  the  middle  of 
a  street),  is  the  largest  city,  and  is  noted  for  its  slaughter 
and  packing  houses.  Topeka,  the  capital,  Wichita,  and 
Leavenworth  are  important  cities. 

NORTH  DAKOTA. 

North  Dakota  is  principally  a  prairie  country,  and  has 
a  very  fertile  soil  in  many  parts.  Wheat  and  live-stock  are 
the  principal  productions.  In  the  Red  River  Valley  are  very 
large  wheat  farms,  some  containing  as  many  as  thirty  thou- 
sand acres.     Cattle  ranches  are  also  on  a  large  scale. 

Fargo  and  Grand  Forks  are  the  chief  trading  centers. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

South  Dakota  is  like  North  Dakota.  The  principal  pro- 
ducts are  wheat  and  cattle.  Gold,  silver,  tin,  and  coal  are 
found  in  the  Black  Hills. 

Sioux  Falls  is  the  largest  city  and  railroad  center.  Huron, 
Yankton,  and  Pierre  are  trading-points.  Deadwood  is  the 
mining  town  of  the  Black  Hills. 

NEBRASKA. 

Nebraska  is  very  fertile  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state, 
and  yields  large  crops  of  hay  and  grain.  Beets  are  a  staple 
product,  and  the  making  of  beet  sugar  is  an  important  in- 
dustry. 

Omaha  is  a  large  city,  having  great  works  for  smelting 
and  refining  ore.  It  is  extensively  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  linseed  oil  and  packing  meat.  Lincoln,  the 
capital,  Hastings,  and  Nebraska  City  are  important  trade 

centers. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  CENTRAL  STATES. 

What  states  are  termed  the  Central  States  ?  What  three  large  nav- 
igable rivers  are  in  this  section?  What  is  said  of  the  surface  ?  What 
is  meant  by  the  word  "  prairie  "?  What  two  ranges  of  mountains  are 
in  this  region?  What  are  the  two  great  cereal  products?  What  are 
the  agricultural  products  of  Wisconsin  ?  What  are  the  chief  products 
of  manufacture  ?  What  is  the  largest  city,  and  for  what  is  it  noted  ? 
Name  some  other  cities  of  Wisconsin,  and  the  capital.  What  part  of 
Michigan  is  devoted  to  agriculture  ?  What  are  the  products  ?  What 
minerals  are  found  in  the  northern  part  ?  What  is  said  of  the  produc- 
tion of  salt  ?  What  is  said  of  the  iron  and  copper  production  ?  Name 
some  important  cities.     What  noted  college  *.  , 

is  located  at  Ann  Arbor?     What  are  the  ag- 
ricultural products  of  Illinois?    What  is  said 
of  it  manufactures  ?    What  is  its  largest  city? 
What  is  the  rank  of   Chicago  in  population 
and  wealth?     What  are  the  great  indus- 
trial interests  of  Chicago?     How  is  Lake 
Michigan  connected  with  the  Mississippi? 
Name  some  other  important  cities  of  Illi- 
nois.    What  are  the  agricultural  products 


Bears.    Yellowstone  Park 


of  Indiana?  Name  the  mineral  products.  What  are  the  principal 
articles  of  manufacture  ?  Name  the  important  cities.  In  what  pro- 
ductions does  Ohio  rank  first  ?  What  are  its  mineral  products  ?  What 
is  its  largest  city?  For  what  is  Columbus  noted  ?  Name  some  other 
important  cities.  By  what  other  name  is  Kentucky  often  called? 
To  what  productions  is  it  principally  devoted?  For  what  is  Ken- 
tucky famous?  What  noted  natural  wonder  has  Kentucky?  Name 
the  most  important  cities.  What  is  the  capital  ?  In  what  agricultural 
product  does  Minnesota  excel?  What  are  the  chief  manufactures? 
What  is  the  largest  city?  For  what  is  it  noted?  Name  the  leading 
agricultural  products  of  Iowa.  Name  some  important  cities  of  this 
state.  What  are  the  agricultural  products  of  Missouri  ?  What  min- 
erals are  mined?  What  is  its  largest  city?  What  other  important 
commercial  city  is  in  this  state  ?  What  are  the  most  important  agricul- 
tural products  of  Kansas  ?  What  minerals  are  mined  in  this  state  ? 
Name  the  principal  cities.  What  are  the  productions  of  North  Dakota? 
What  are  the  chief  towns  ?  What  are  the  products  of  South  Dakota  ? 
What  mining  district  is  located  in  this  state  ?  Name  the  most  impor- 
tant towns .  What  are  the  chief  products  of  Nebraska  ?  What  is  the 
largest  city?     Name  some  other  important  towns. 

THE  MOUNTAIN  AND  PLATEAU  STATES 
AND  TERRITORIES. 

Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico  are 
crossed  by  the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Idaho, 
Nevada,  Utah,  and  Arizona  are  the  plateau  division,  and 
are  broken  by  lesser  mountain  ranges.  All  of  this  region 
is  elevated,  the  plains  at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
being  over  five  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

This  section  abounds  in  wonderful  natural  scenery.  The 
rivers  run  in  deep-walled  canons,  notable  among  which  are 
the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Arkansas  and  the  Canon  of  the 
Colorado.  The  atmosphere  is  dry  and  clear,  and  the  lofty 
mountains  may  be  seen  many  miles  away.  In  this  part  of 
the  country  a  low  mountain  that  arises  abruptly  from  the 
surrounding  country  is  called  a  "butte,"  and  a  table-land 
bounded  by  cliffs  is  known  as  a  "mesa." 

This  group  of  states  covers  several  natural  regions:  — 

1.  The  Great  Plains,  sloping  from  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  toward  the  Mississippi. 

2.  The  Rocky  Mountains. 

3.  The  Great  Basin,  crossed  by  several  short  mountain 
ranges. 

4.  The  Columbian  Plateau,  in  the  north. 

5.  The  Colorado  Plateau,  in  the  south. 

In  the  Rocky  Mountain  Range  are  several  peaks  fourteen 
thousand  feet  high,  and  the  general  level  of  the  country 
has  a  greater  elevation  than  the  mountains  in  eastern  North 
_•!■■/,    America,  with  one  or  two  exceptions. 

The  Great  Basin  is  a  triangular  re- 
gion lying  between  the  Wasatch  Moun- 
tains and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  the 
northern  portion  are  found  some  fertile 
valleys  of  small  scope,  but  the  southern 
part  is  hot,  dry,  and  sterile. 

In  this  group  of  states,  stock-rais- 
ing and  mining  are  the  chief  occupa- 
tions. The  soil  requires  irrigation  to 
be  productive..  Vast  herds  of  cattle 
and  sheep  graze  in  the  valleys  and 


70 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


In  the  Region  of  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado. 

foothills.  Gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  lead,  iron,  copper,  and 
coal  are  mined  throughout  this  region,  and  more  silver  is 
produced  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country. 

MONTANA. 

The  irrigated  farming-lands  of  this  state  comprise  greater 
area  than  some  of  the  important  Eastern  states.  Vast  herds 
of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  are  grazed  on  the  bunch-grass 
that  nourishes  on  its  plains  and  foothills.  The  state  ranks 
first  in  the  production  of  copper.  Its  yield  of  gold,  silver, 
and  other  minerals  is  large. 

Helena  and  Butte  are  nourishing  mining  centers.  Great 
Falls  and  Anaconda  have  large  copper-smelters. 


WYOMING. 

Grazing  is  the  leading  industry  of  this 
state.  It  has  very  little  farming-laud. 
Coal  is  the  only  mineral  mined  to  any 
great  extent. 

Cheyenne  and  Laramie  are  important 
shipping  -  points  for  the  surrounding 
country. 

In  the  northwestern  corner  of  the 
state,  lying  partly  in  Montana  and  Idaho, 
are  about  four  thousand  square  miles 
reserved  by  the  government  as  the  Yel- 
lowstone National  Park.  It  contains 
numerous  geysers,  which  spout  forth 
boiling  water  at  intervals  to  the  height 
of  250  feet;  lakes  of  boiling  water  side 
by  side  with  pools  of  water  almost  ice- 
cold;  basins  of  red,  white,  yellow,  and 
brown  boiling  mud  called  "paint-pots" ; 
holes  in  the  forest  that  send  forth  sul- 
phur fumes;  the  beautiful  Yellowstone 
Lake,  thirty  miles  long,  filled  with  trout; 
the  picturesque  Falls  of  the  Yellowstone 
River,  and  many  other  fantastic  freaks 
and  wonders  of  nature.  The  park  abounds 
with  wild  game,  protected  by  United 
States  troops,  who  guard  the  park. 

COLORADO. 

The  greater  part  of  Colorado  is  moun- 
tainous and  desert  land.  Because  of  its 
high  altitude  and  dry  climate,  it  is  much 
sought  as  a  health  resort.  The  state 
abounds  in  natural  scenery  of  impres- 
sive grandeur.  From  the  city  of  Den- 
ver may  be  seen  the  noted  peaks,  — 
Longs,  Grays,  and  Pikes  Peaks.  The 
Garden  of  the  Gods  and  Monument  Park 
are  celebrated  for  their  natural  beauty. 

Where  the  land  can  be  irrigated,  it 
produces  immense  crops  of  grain  and 
vegetables.  The  valley  of  the  Gunnison 
River  is  noted  for  its  fine  peaches  and 
other  fruits.  This  state  yields  large 
quantities  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  other  minerals,  which 
are  an  apparently  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth. 

Denver,  the  "Queen  City  of  the  Plains,"  is  the  largest 
city  and  most  important  trade  center  of  the  surrounding 
country.  Leadville  is  a  famous  mining  camp.  Colorado 
Springs  is  a  noted  health  resort.  Cripple  Creek  has  rich 
gold  mines,  which  are  worked  extensively. 

TERRITORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO. 

New  Mexico  was  originally  a  part  of  Mexico,  and  many 
of  the  Mexican  manners  and  customs  still  prevail.  Santa 
Fe,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  United  States,  was  set- 
tled by  the  Spanish  in  1582. 


The  Mountain  and  Plateau  States. 


71 


The  Indians  of  New  Mexico  live  in  villages 
called  pueblos  (a  Spanish  word  meaning  village 
The  houses  are  built  of  adobe,  placed  close 
together,  the  entrance  to  the  house  being 
by  means  of  a  ladder,  and  through  a  hole 
in  the  roof. 

Stock-raising  is  the  principal  industry. 
The  territory  is  rich  in  minerals  and  pre- 
cious stones. 

Albuquerque  is  the  largest  city,  and  is  a 
railroad  junction.     Las  Vegas  has  iron  anc 
woolen  manufactures,  and  is  noted  for  itsj 
medicinal  springs. 


A 


/  Narrow  Gauge      g 

\  Terrace, 

i  Mammoth  Hot 

}  Springs. 


IDAHO. 

The  soil  is 
sandy  in  the 
greaterpartof 
the  state,  and 
only  when  ir- 
rigated can  it 
be  cultivated. 
The  southern 
part  is  a  vol- 
canic region, 
where  streams 
suddenly  dis- 
appear into 
the  earth.  In 
the  valleys, 
some  grain  is 
grown.  The 
r  /  state  has  some 
very  rich  gold 
mines.  The 
yield  of  silver  is  large. 
Boise,    the    capital, 

Lower  Fall  of  the^  W     ^  in  a  fine  agricultural 

Yellowstone.         ^H         \h,*^         and  grazing  region. 

UTAH. 

The  greater  part  of  the  state  consists  of  mountains  and 
barren  plateau.    The  rivers  flow  through  deep,  rocky  canons. 


Great  Salt  Lake  is  one  of  the  natural  wonders 
of  this  state.  At  one  time  it  was  a  body  of 
fresh-water  as  large  as  Lake  Michigan, 
with  an  outlet  through  Red  Rock  Pass 
into  Marsh  Creek,  and  to  the  Shoshone 
and  Columbia  rivers.  Its  surface  was 
about  one  thousand  feet  higher  than  it 
now  is.  Finally,  the  rainfall  that  sup- 
plied its  waters  became  scant,  and  the  out- 

„,  flow  ceased.     Since,  it  has  dried 

Hymen  Terrace,  ...  ' 

Mammoth  away,  until  it  is  very  shallow.    Its 

Hot  Springs.       water  is  very  dense  and  buoyant. 
Utah  Lake  is  a  considerable  body  of  water, 
with  an  outlet  into  Salt  Lake.     The  Great 
Salt  Lake  Valley  and  Utah  Valley  are  ex- 
tensive and  fertile  farming  regions,  made 
very    productive    by    irrigation. 
They       produce 
grain,  hay,  very 
fine  potatoes  and 
other  vegetables. 
Very   fine   fruit 
is    also    grown . 

Liberty  Cap, 
Mammoth  Hot 

Springs. 


M 


Gardiner  River  Canon, 
Yellowstone  Park. 

Next  in  importance 
to  agriculture  is  the 
mining  of  silver  and 
lead. 

Located  twelve  miles 
from  the  lake  is  Salt  Lake 
City.  This  is  the  seat  of 
the  noted  Mormon  Church, 
the  followers  of  which  live 
chiefly  in  Utah.  Ogden 
is  an  important  railroad 
town,  with  manufactures 
and  sanatorinms. 


Lake, 
Mammoth  Hot  Springs. 


NEVADA. 

The  greater  part  of  this  state  is  mountainous  and  desert 
land.  Only  in  the  valleys  is  agriculture  carried  on.  Min- 
ing is  the  chief  industry.  It  produces  gold  and  silver  in 
large  quantities.  Virginia  City  is  a  great  mining  center. 
Reno  is  an  important  town.  At  Carson  City  there  are  noted 
hot  springs. 

TERRITORY  OF  ARIZONA. 

The  climate  of  Arizona,  in  the  southern  portion,  is  very 
dry  and  hot. 

In  the  cliffs  of  the  Canon  of  the  Colorado  River  and  its 


72 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Mormon  Temple,  Salt  Lake  City. 


tributaries  are  the  remains  of  strange  dwellings,  once  occu- 
pied by  people  called  "cliff-dwellers."  Here  and  there,  on 
a  shelf  half-way  down  the  side  of  a  precipitous  canon,  is  a 
single  dwelling;  and  again,  in  larger  recesses,  there  are  vil- 
lages of  many  rooms.  The  stones  of  which  the  houses 
were  built  are  set  in  clay  mortar. 

In  the  southwestern  part  of  the  territory  there  are  good 
irrigated  farms.  Live-stock  is  raised.  Mining  of  copper 
and  silver  is  an  important  industry. 

Phoenix  and  Tucson  are  the  most  important  towns. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MOUNTAIN  AND  PLATEAU  STATES 
AND  TERRITORIES. 

What  states  and  territories  are  crossed  by  the  maiu  range  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains?  What  states  and  territory  are  in  the  plateau  region? 
What  is  said  o£  the  natural  scenery  of  this  region?  What  is  meant  by 
the  word  "butte"?  Mesa?  What  natural  regions  are  comprised  in 
these  states  and  territories?  What  is  the  elevation  of  some  of  the 
peaks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains?     What  is  said  of  the  Great  Basin? 


What  are  the  principal  products  of  this  region?  What  are  the  princi- 
pal industries  and  products  of  Montana?  What,  is  said  of  its  mineral 
products?  Name  its  principal  cities.  What  is  the  principal  industry 
of  Wyoming?  Name  its  most  important  towns.  What  is  said  of  Yel- 
lowstone National  Park?  What  is  said  of  the  natural  scenery  of  Colo- 
rado? What  are  the  principal  mineral  products?  Name  some  noted 
mountain  peaks.  Name  some  of  its  noted  cities.  What  is  the  prin- 
cipal industry  of  the  territory  of  New  Mexico?  What  is  the  oldest 
town  in  the  United  States?  Name  two  important  towns.  What  is  said 
of  the  surface  of  Idaho?  What  minerals  are  produced?  What  is  the 
chief  city?  What  is  said  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  in  Utah?  What  are  the 
industries  of  the  state?  For  what  is  Salt  Lake  City  noted?  What  is 
the  principal  industry  of  Nevada?  Name  some  towns  of  the  state. 
What  is  the  climate  of  Arizona?  What  peculiar  people  once  inhabited 
parts  of  that  territory?  What  are  the  principal  industries?  Name 
two  important  towns.  Describe  the  Yellowstone.  Have  you  ever  seen 
any  pictures  of  the  Yellowstone?  Where?  Do  you  examine  pictures 
in  the  geography?  What  are  they  printed  in  a  book  for?  Tell  what 
you  have  learned  from  pictures.  Examine  the  mountains  below. 
Where  is  the  highest  mountain?  Name  some  of  the  mountains  you 
have  seen.  What  is  meant  by  sea -level?  Do  you  know  how  far  above 
sea-level  your  home  is? 


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Vegetation  Chart  of  North  and  South  America. 


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SOI  TH   AMERICA. 


South  America  is  the  continent  forming  the  southern 
half  of  the  New  World.     It  is  joined  to  the  continent  of 


Outline  Map  of  South  America. 

North  America  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  stretches 
southward  to  Cape  Horn. 

Boundaries.  South  America  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  east 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific.  To 
the  south  it  diminishes  in  width  gradually,  and  terminates 
in  a  group  of  rocky  islands. 

Extent.  South  America,  like  Africa,  forms  a  vast 
peninsula.  It  has  an  area  of  seven  million  square  miles. 
The  greatest  length,  from  north  to  south,  is  4,550  miles, 
and  the  greatest  breadth,  from  east  to  west,  3,200  miles. 

Natural  Features.  South  America  has  three  moun- 
tain systems:  the  Andean,  the  Parime,  and  the  Brazilian. 
The  Andes  run  in  a  north-and-south  direction,  through  the 
entire  length  of  the  continent.  The  Parime  system  consists 
of  several  ranges,  which  rise  between  the  low  plains  of  the 
Orinoco  on  the  north  and  the  Amazon  on  the  south.     The 

;  *       75 


Brazilian  system  consists  of  numerous  chains,  some  near 
the  coast,  and  some  quite  a  distance  inland. 

Plains.  The  interior  of  South  America  contains  a  series  of  great 
plateaus,  and  are  naturally  divided  as  follows:  The  llanos,  or  grassy 
plains  of  the  Orinoco  valley ;  the  selvas,  or  forest  plains  of  the  Amazon 
valley;  and  the  pampas,  or  plains  of  the  Plata  region. 

Rivers.  The  slope  of  the  continent  of  South  America  is  generally 
toward  the  Atlantic ;  consequently  the  larger  rivers  flow  into  that  ocean. 
The  three  great  rivers  are  the  Orinoco,  the  Amazon,  and  the  Plata. 

The  Orinoco  has  a  length  of  1,500  miles,  and  waters  the  regions  of 
the  llanos.     It  has  its  source  in  the  Parime  Mountains. 

The  Amazon  is  3,900  miles  long,  and  has  its  source  in  the  Andes. 

The  Plata  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Parana  and  Uru- 
guay. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  South  America  is  warmer  than 
that  of  North  America.  The  tropical  belt  of  the  continent 
is  no"t  so  hot  as  the  corresponding  region  of  Africa,  and  the 
configuration  of  the  continent  permits  the  rain-bearing 
winds  from  the  Atlantic  to  pass  over  its  surface. 

Productions.  South  America  has  extremely  rich  and 
varied  natural  productions.  The  vast  forests  surpass  in 
every  respect  those  of  any  other  portion  of  the  globe.  Me- 
dicinal plants,  and  shrubs  valued  for  their  use  as  beverages, 
gums  and  woods  prized  in  manufactures,  are  all  native  to  the 
continent.  Birds  of  brilliant  plumage,  reptiles,  and  insects 
of  endless  variety,  are  characteristic  of  the  abundant  animal 
life  of  the  continent.  The  puma  and  the  jaguar  represent 
the  carnivora  of  the  continent.  The  llama,  vicuna,  and 
guanaco  are  found  in  the  high  regions  of  the  Andes.  The 
tapir  is  peculiar  to  the  continent,  and  the  sloth,  ant-eater, 
and  armadillo  are  natives.  The  continent  is  extremely  rich 
in  minerals.  The  precious  metals  are  abundant.  Copper, 
tin,  lead,  and  iron  are  widely  distributed.  Good  coal,  also, 
is  found.     The  continent  is  rich  in  precious  stones. 

Population.  The  population  of  South  America  is  about 
thirty  millions.  Probably  a  third  are  of  European  origin, 
Spanish  or  Portuguese.  Spanish  is  the  prevailing  language, 
except  in  Brazil,  which  was  colonized  by  the  Portuguese. 

Government.      There  are  ten  republics  in  South  Amer- 
ica:  Brazil,  Venezuela,  Uruquay,  Argentina,  Chile,  Peru, 
Ecuador,  Colombia,  Bolivia,  and 
Paraguay.     The  European  pos- 
sessions are  British,  Dutch,  and 
French  Guiana. 


QUESTIONS  ON  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Locate  South  America.  Describe  its 
boundaries.  Tell  what  you  can  about 
its  natural  features.  What  is  said  about 
the  interior  of  South  America?  What 
is  meant  by  the  "  selvas  "f  Name  the 
three  great  rivers.  What  is  the  largest 
country  in  South  Americaf  Name  some 
of  the  productions  of  the  continent. 
What  is  the  prevailing  language? 


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Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 


76 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


BRAZIL. 

Brazil  '  is  the  largest  country  of  South  America.  It  has 
an  area  of  3,219,000  square  miles. 

Natural  Features.  The  great  natural  features  of  Brazil 
are  the  vast  plains,  or  selvas,  which  are  watered  by  the 
largest  rivers  in  the  world. 

Rivers.  The  Amazon  is  the  chief  river  of  Brazil.  It  is  naviga- 
ble for  from  400  to  500  miles  from  the  sea.  It  has  numerous  tribu- 
taries, the  Rio  Negro  on  the  left,  and  the  Madeira,  Tapajos,  Xingu,  and 
Tocantins  on  the  right,  bank. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Brazil  is  thoroughly  tropical, 
the  whole  country  being  within  the  torrid  zone. 

Productions.  Diamonds  and  other  precious  stones, 
with  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron ,  and  lead,  are  among  the  pro- 
ductions of  Brazil ;  but  its  mineral  wealth  is  inferior  to  the 
vegetable  produce  of  the  soil  and  to  the  great  treasures  of  the 
forests.  Coffee,  sugar,  and  cotton  are  staple  products.  Rice, 
cocoa,  maize,  and  tobacco  are  also  produced.  The  manioc 
yields  a  kind  of  bread,  the  chief  food  of  the  native  Indians. 

Inhabitants.  The  population  of  Brazil  is  upwards  of 
fourteen  millions,  more  than  a  third  of  whom  are  of  Por- 
tuguese descent.  A  large  proportion  of  the  population  are 
negroes,  who  until  recently  were  slaves,  but  are  now  citizens. 
The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  followed,  but  church  and 
state  have  no  connection. 

Government.  The  United  States  of  Brazil  form  a  fed- 
eral republic.  The  country  became  a  republic  in  1889, 
when  Emperor  Dom  Pedro  II.  was  deposed. 

Cities.  The  capital  of  Brazil  is  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  stands  on 
the  western  side  of  a  fine  bay,  one  of  the  finest  natural  harbors  in  the 
world.     The  city  has  800,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  largest  city  in 

South  America. 

QUESTIONS  ON  BRAZIL. 

Give  an  account  of  Brazil.     What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  ' '  Bra- 
zil "f    What  are  the  special  features  of  Brazil?    Describe  the  Amazon 
River.     Describe  the   climate.     Describe  the  productions  of  Brazil. 
-  What  is  the  religion  of  the  people  of  Brazil?     Tell  what  you  can  about 
the  government. 

GUIANA. 

Guiana,  so  called  from  an  Indian  tribe,  is  divided  into 
three  parts.  The  most  westerly  part  belongs  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, the  central  to  Holland,  and  the  eastern  to  France. 
Hence  they  are  called  British,  Dutch,  and  French  Guiana. 

All  Guiana  has  a  tropical  climate.  The  soil  is  fertile, 
and  the  natural  wealth  of  the  forests  unbounded. 

The  commercial  products  are  about  the  same  as  those  of 

Brazil. 

QUESTIONS  ON  GUIANA. 

From  what  does  Guiana  derive  its  name?  Into  how  many  parts  is 
Guiana  divided?  To  what  countries  do  these  parts  belong?  What 
about  the  climate?  the  soil?  the  forests?  the  commercial  products? 

VENEZUELA. 

Venezuela,  which  means  "Little  Venice,"  and  so  called 
from  the  Indian  pile-houses,  which  the  Spaniards  found  at 
the  entrance  to  Lake  Maracaibo,  includes  the  greater  part 

1  Brazil  was  first  discovered  by  Cabral  in  1500,  and  was  named  by 
him  Tierra  de  Santa  Cruz  (the  "  Land  of  the  Holy  Cross  ").  The  name 
"Brazil"  is  derived  from  the  red  Brazil  wood,  which  the  Portuguese 
compared  to  red-hot  coals  (braza). 


of  the  basin  of  the  Orinoco  River.  The  area  of  Venezuela 
is  estimated  at  600,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
2,250,000. 

The  surface  of  Venezuela  is  naturally  divided  into  three 
distinct  zones:  the  farming,  the  pastoral,  and  the  forest 
zones.  Sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  cereals  are  produced  in  the 
first;  in  the  second,  cattle;  and  in  the  third,  tonka  beans, 
copaiba,  vanilla,  and  caoutchouc  grow  wild.  The  gold-fields 
are  rich,  and  there  are  copper  and  salt  mines. 

The  government  of  Venezuela  is  republican  in  form. 

The  capital  of  Venezuela  is  Caracas,  situated  in  a  fertile  mountain 
valley,  3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  12  miles  distant  from  the  shore 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

QUESTIONS  ON  VENEZUELA. 
Locate  "Venezuela.     What  does  the  name  mean?    What  are  the  nat- 
ural products?     What  is  the  government?     Where  is  the  capital? 

COLOMBIA. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  is  in  the  northwest  corner  of 
South  America.  It  has  an  area  of  514,000  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  3,500,000,  about  half  of  whom 
are  whites  of  Spanish  descent.  The  rest  are  Indians.  Pri- 
mary education  is  free,  but  not  compulsory. 

The  lowland  portions  of  Colombia  are  covered  with  a 
dense  forest,  and  have  a  very  hot  climate.  The  mountain 
regions  are  quite  cool.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country 
is  very  great.  Cocoa,  coffee,  cinchona  bark,  indigo,  bananas, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  wheat  and  other  cereals  are  produced. 

The  capital  of  the  republic  is  Bogota,  which  is  situated  in  the  high 
plateau  of  the  Andes. 

The  chief  place  on  the  western  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  the 
city  of  Panama.  The  traffic  across  this  narrow  neck  of  land  is  main- 
tained by  means  of  a  railway.  De  Lesseps,  the  French  engineer  who 
built  the  Suez  Canal,  attempted  to  build  a  canal  at  this  point,  connect- 
ing the  town  of  Colon  (Aspinwall),  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  isthmus, 
with  Panama.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  million  dollars  were  spent  on 
this  canal,  but  in  1889  work  was  discontinued. 

QUESTIONS  ON  COLOMBIA. 

Locate  the  republic  of  Colombia.  Describe  the  lowlands.  Describe 
the  products.  What  is  the  capital?  Locate  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
Tell  what  you  can  about  the  attempted  construction  of  the  great  Panama 
Canal. 

ECUADOR. 

The  Republic  op  Ecuador'  has  an  area  of  120,000  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  1,250,000. 

The  natural  products  are  both  rich  and  varied.  Cocoa  is 
the  principal  export. 

The  highest  portions  of  the  Andes  are  withiu  Ecuador. 
Among  them  are  the  gigantic  peaks  of  Chimborazo,  20,545 
feet  above  the  sea;   Cotopaxi,  19,613  feet;  and  Antisana, 

19,335  feet. 

The  capital  of  Ecuador  is  Quito,  situated  in  the  interior,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  9,500  feet,  and  nearly  under  the  line  of  the  equator.  The 
chief  seaport  is  Guayaquil. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ECUADOR. 

Where  is  Ecuador?  Describe  the  mountains  of  Ecuador.  Name 
the  capital.  What  is  the  chief  seaport?  What  is  the  chief  export 
from  Ecuador? 

1  Ecuador  Spanish,  equator. 


The  Falkland  Islands. 


77 


PERU. 

The  Republic  op  Peru  is  on  the  western  side  of  South 
America.  It  has  an  area  of  455,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  about  three  millions. 

The  climate  of  Peru  varies  with  the  most  striking  differ- 
ences in  its  physical  conformation.  The  mountain  region 
is  cold,  the  coast  plain  is  hot  and  arid,  and  the  plains  on  the 
east  of  the  mountains  are  watered  by  abundant  rains. 

Peru  has  great  natural  advantages.  The  gold,  silver, 
and  quicksilver  mines,  once  the  richest  in  the  world,  are  now 
worked  only  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  forests  produce  gums,  balsams,  cinchona  bark,  va- 
nilla, and  sarsaparilla,  and  of  recent  years  the  production 
of  sugar  has  largely  increased. 

An  extensive  system  of  railroads  has  been  constructed, 
which  greatly  facilitates  the  development  of  the  country. 

The  capital  of  the  republic  is  the  city  of  Lima,  which  is  six  miles 
distant  from  the  coast  of  the  Pacific.  Lima  was  founded  in  1535  by 
Pizarro. 

Callao,  on  the  adjacent  coast,  is  the  port  of  Lima,  and  the  com- 
mercial outlet  to  the  Pacific. 

QUESTIONS  ON  PERU. 

Locate  the  republic  of  Peru.  Describe  the  climate.  What  are  the 
natural  advantages  of  Peru?  Describe  the  railroads.  Name  the  capi- 
tal of  Peru. 

BOLIVIA. 

The  Republic  op  Bolivia,  which  derives  its  name  from 
Simon  Bolivar,  is  an  inland  state.  It  has  an  area  of  567,- 
000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about  2,250,000. 
The  whites,  as  is  the  case  in  nearly  all  the  countries  on  the 
western  side  of  South  America,  are  of  Spanish  descent. 

The  Andes  form  the  border  line  between  Peru  and  Bo- 
livia. One  of  the  peaks,  Sorato,  attains  an  elevation  of 
24,812  feet.  The  climate  and  products  of  Bolivia  resemble 
those  of  Peru.  The  capital  is  Sucre,  but  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment is  usually  at  La  Paz.  La  Paz  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial city. 

QUESTIONS  ON  BOLIVIA. 

Locate  Bolivia.  From  what  does  the  country  derive  its  name? 
Name  the  natural  products  of  Bolivia.  What  is  the  capital?  Name 
the  chief  commercial  city. 

CHILE. 

The  Republic  op  Chile  is  a  narrow  strip  of  country  on 
the  western  coast  of  South  America,  between  the  Andes  and 
the  Pacific.  It  has  an  area  of  not  less  than  294,000  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  over  three  millions. 

The  climate  is  temperate  and  healthy,  becoming  generally 
cooler  toward  the  south.  The  northern  part  of  the  country 
is  nearly  rainless. 

The  Chilean  Andes  include  some  of  the  highest  summits 
of  the  mountain  system,  the  loftiest  peak  being  the  peak  of 
Aconcagua.  The  country  is  barren  and  sandy  in  the  north, 
but  fertile  and  productive  in  the  south,  where  the  people  are 
engaged  in  farming.  The  country  produces  annually  about 
twenty-seven  million  bushels  of  wheat,  and  eight  million 
bushels  of  other  cereals,  besides  fruits,  vegetables,  and  a 
large  amount  of   wine.      Live   animals,  wool,  hides,  and 


skins  form  the  principal  exports.     Nitrates  form  the  bulk 
of  the  mining  products. 

Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chile,  is  an  inland  city,  midway  between 
the  Andes  and  the  ocean.  The  chief  seaport  is  Valparaiso,  which  is 
an  important  center  of  commerce. 

questions  on  chile. 

Where  is  the  republic  of  Chile?  What  is  the  climate  of  the  coun- 
try? Name  the  mountains  of  Chile.  Describe  the  soil.  What  are  the 
chief  products?     Name  the  capital. 

ARGENTINA. 

The  Republic  op  Argentina1  includes,  the  group  of  states 
formerly  known  as  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata.  The  area  is  about  515,700  square  miles.  The  popu- 
lation is  about  4,250,000.  The  Spanish  language  prevails 
throughout  Argentina.  The  greater  part  of  the  republic  is 
an  immense  plain.  The  Paraguay,  Parana,  and  Uruguay 
rivers  are  the  three  great  feeders  of  the  Plata. 

Vast  herds  of  cattle  and  horses,  and  immense  flocks  of 
sheep,  are  reared  on  the  immense  pastures.  Agriculture  is 
progressing  rapidly.  Over  8,000  miles  of  railway  connect 
the  principal  cities  of  the  republic  with  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
a  trans- Andean  line  connects  the  country  with  Santiago  and 
Valparaiso,  in  Chile. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ARGENTINA. 

Locate  the  republic  of  Argentina.  From  what  is  the  word  "Argen- 
tina" derived?  What  is  the  language  of  the  people  of  Argentina? 
Name  the  principal  rivers.  What  are  the  products?  Describe  the 
railroads. 

PARAGUAY. 

The  Republic  op  Paraguay  is  northeast  of  Argentina. 

The  country  has  an  area  of  98,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  330,000.  The  chief  town  of  Paraguay  is 
Asuncion.  The  most  characteristic  article  of  produce  of 
Paraguay  is  the  yerba  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PARAGUAY. 

Locate  the  republic  of  Paraguay.     Name  the  chief  city, 
the  most  characteristic  article  of  produce? 


What  is 


URUGUAY. 

The  Republic  op  Uruguay  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Plata. 
It  has  an  area  of  72,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
about  730,000.  The  capital  is  Montevideo.  The  rearing 
of  cattle  and  sheep  is  the  leading  industry. 

QUESTIONS  ON  URUGUAY. 

Locate  Uruguay.  What  is  the  capital?  What  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry ? 

THE  FALKLAND  ISLANDS. 

The  Falkland  Islands,  consisting  of  East  Falkland 
and  West  Falkland,  and  about  100  smaller  islands,  form  a 
British  crown  colony.  The  total  area  is  about  7,500  square 
miles,  and  the  population  is  about  2,000.  The  industries 
are  pastoral. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  FALKLAND  ISLANDS. 

Where  are  the  Falkland  Islands?  What  is  the  population  of  these 
islands?     What  is  the  occupation  of  the  people? 

'Argentina  is  from  the  Latin  argentum,  meaning  silver. 


EUROPE. 


Europe  forms  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  Old  World. 
It  is  an  immense  peninsula,  jutting  out  from  the  western  side 


% 


Outline  map  of  Europe. 

of  Asia,  and  forming  with  it  by  far  the  lar- 
gest continuous  mass  of  land.  It  is  entirely 
separated  from  Africa,  on  the  sovith,  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and,  on  the  west,  from 
North  America  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Its  northern  boundary  is  the  Arctic  Ocean , 
and  its  eastern  boundary  the  Caspian  !Sea, 
the  river  Ural,  and  the  range  of  the  Ural 
Mountains. 

Europe,1  next  to  Australia,  is  the  smallest  of  the 
continents.  It  is  about  one  fifth  the  size  of  Asia, 
one  quarter  that  of  America,  and  one  third  that  of 
Africa.  It  is  also  about  one  fourteenth  of  the  total 
area  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe,  and  one  fifty- 
third  of  its  entire  surface. 

The  Seas.  The  principal  inland  seas, 
bays,  and  gulfs  belonging  to  Europe  are  the 
Mediterranean,2  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the 
Black  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Azof,  the  Caspian  Sea, 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  the  English  Channel,  the 
Irish  Sea,  the  North  Sea,  the  Zuider  Zee, 
the  Baltic  Sea,  and  the  White  Sea.3 

The  Mediterranean  is  the  largest  inland 
sea  in  the  world,  being  over  2,400  miles 
long,  and  covering  nearly  one  million  square 
miles. 

1  Europe  was  the  name  first  given  to  the  land 
bordering  on  the  Hellespont. 

2  Mediterranean,  Latin,  medius,  the  middle,  and 
terra,  land. 

'  The  White  Sea  is  so  named  from  its  being  cov- 
ered with  ice  half  the  year. 


The  Black  Sea  has  an  area  of  180,000  square  miles,  and 
receives  the  drainage  of  one  third  of  Europe.  It  is  subject 
to  sudden  and  violent  storms  and  dense  fogs;  hence  its 
name  of  the  "Black"  Sea. 

The  Irish  Sea,  between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  is 
comparatively  deep,  but  subject  to  violent  storms. 

The  Baltic  Sea  has  an  area  of  135,000  square  miles.  Its 
waters  are  generally  shallow,  especially  in  the  north,  and 
are  fresher  than  those  of  the  Atlantic.  Both  the  Baltic 
and  the  Mediterranean- are  nearly,  if  not  entirely,  tideless. 

The  Zuider  Zee  was  formed  by  an  eruption  of  the  sea  in 
the  thirteenth  century. 

The  most  noted  straits  are  the  Strait  of  Dover,  21  miles  long,  con- 
necting the  North  Sea  with  the  English  Channel ;  the  Strait  of  Gibral- 
tar, 8  miles  long,  which  forms  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean;  the 
Bosphorus,  or  Strait  of  Constantinople,  1  mile  long,  leading  from  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  into  the  Black  Sea. 

The  most  northerly  point  of  the  continent  of  Europe  is  North  Cape ; 
the  most  westerly  point  is  Cape  Roca,  in  Portugal ;  and  the  most 
southerly  is  Cape  Tarifa,  in  Spain. 

Peninsulas.  Europe  is  distinguished  by  a  great  num- 
ber of  peninsulas,  and  all,  except  Jutland,  point  toward  the 


Gibraltar. 

Gibraltar  is  derived  from  Gibel  el  Tarik,  "the  mountain  of  Tarik."  The  rock  was  first 
fortified  by  the  Saracens  in  711.  Gibraltar  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1704.  The  Span- 
iards and  French  besieged  it  from  July,  1779,  to  February,  1783,  when  the  siege  was 
abandoned  as  hopeless.  The  rock  is  of  gray  limestone  formation,  and  contains  many 
caves.  The  fortifications  are  formidable.  Port-holes,  so  contrived  that  the  gunners  are 
free  from  harm,  are  cut  at  intervals  of  twelve  yards.  New  guns  have  been  placed  in 
positions  from  the  sea-wall  to  the  summit.     There  are  three  forts. 

81 


82 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


The  Alps.     Mont  Blanc. 

south.  The  principal  peninsulas  are  Norway  and  Sweden, 
Jutland, — which  forms  a  part  of  Denmark, — the  Spanish 
peninsula,  Italy,  the  Morea, — which  is  a  part  of  Greece, — 
and  the  Crimea,  which  is  a  part  of  Russia. 

Islands.  The  most  important  of  the  islands  of  Europe 
are  the  British  Isles, — England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land,—  which  lie  off  the  western  coast  of  Europe,  within 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Iceland,  which  also  lies  in  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean,  is  the  third  in  point  of  size.  The  Azores,  in 
the  Atlantic,  and  the  celebrated' 
islands  in  the  Mediterranean, — 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Candia, 
and  Cyprus,  —  are  all  of  large  size. 

Mountains.  Europe  exhibits 
a  great  variety  of  surface.  The 
southern  parts  are  mountainous. 
The  middle  parts  are  less  elevated, 
and  may  be  considered  as  hilly. 
The  northwestern  peninsula  (Nor- 
way and  Sweden)  contains  high 
mountains.  But  the  whole  of 
eastern  Europe  consists  of  a  vast 
plain,  diversified  by  very  slight 
elevations. 

The  principal  mountain  ranges 
of  Europe  are  as  follows:  The  Alps, 
the  Apennines,  the  Balkans,  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Harz,  the  Ural,  and 
the  Caucasus. 

The  Alps,  on  the  borders  of  Italy,  France,  Switzerland,  and  Aus- 
tria, are  the  highest  mountains  in  Europe.  The  upper  portions  of  the 
Alps  are  covered  with  snow.  The  loftiest  mountain  among  the  Alps 
is  Mont  Blanc.     It  is  15,784  feet  —  nearly  three  miles  —  above  the  sea. 

Volcanos.  The  active  volcanos  of  Europe,  with  one  exception, 
are  situated  on  islands.  Those  on  the  mainland,  with  one  exception, 
Vesuvius,  are  extinct.  Vesuvius  is  located  near  Naples,  and  is  4,000 
feet  high. 

Rivers.  Every  part  of  Europe  is  watered  by  running 
streams.  •  Many  of  the  rivers  are  navigable.  The  great 
water-shed  of  Europe  may  be  approximately  marked  by  a 
line  drawn  from  Cape  Tarifa  to  the  Ural  Mountains.    From 


this  medial  line  the  laud 
slopes  more  or  less  regularly 
to  the  northwest  and  south- 
east. 

The  rivers  of  Europe  may  be 
grouped  into  three  main  systems, 
according  as  they  flow  directly  or 
indirectly  into  the  Arctic  and  At- 
lantic oceans,  or  into  the  Caspian 
Sea. 

The  rivers  of  the  Arctic  sys- 
tem include  the  Petchora,  Mezen, 
Dwina,  and  Onega. 

The  principal  rivers  of  the 
Atlantic  system  are  the  Thames, 
Severn,  Tay,  Shannon,  Glommen, 
Seine,  Loire,  Rhone,  Rhine,  Elbe, 
Oder,  Tagus,  Tiber,  Po,  Maritza, 
Danube,  Dniester,  Dnieper,  Don, 
and  Kuban. 
The  principal  rivers  of  the  Caspian  system  are  the  Volga,  the 
Kuma,  and  the  Terek. 

Lakes.  The  lakes  of  Europe  are  divided  into  three 
groups, — the  Alpine,  the  Scandinavian,  and  the  Russian. 

The  principal  Alpine  lakes  are  Lake  Geneva,  through 
which  the  Rhone  flows;  Lakes  Neuchatel,  Zurich,  and  Lu- 
cerne, in  the  basin  of  the  Rhine  River;  and  Lakes  Garda, 
Maggiore,  and  Como,  in  Italy, 

There  are  numerous  lakes  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 


The  Alps.     The  Matterhorn. 

the  principal  ones  being  Lakes  Wenner,  Wetter,  and  Malar, 
on  the  Swedish  side,  and  Lake  Mjosen  is  the  largest  in  Nor- 
way. 

The  Russian  lakes  lie  mainly  in  the  region  between  the 
White  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  The  largest  of  the 
Russian  lakes  are  Ladoga,  6,300  square  miles,  and  Onega, 
3,280  square  miles. 

Climate.  Nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  is  in  the  north 
temperate  zone.  It  is  therefore  free  from  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  to  which  other  divisions  of  the  globe  are 
subject.     There  is,  however,  considerable  difference  in  tern- 


Europe. 


83 


perture  between  the  north  of  Europe  and  the  south.  The 
countries  of  southern  Europe  are  hot;  those  of  central 
Europe,  moderately  warm.  The  northern  regions  are  cool, 
and  the  extreme  north  is  intensely  cold.  This  is  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  laws  of  climatic  change. 

Rainfall.  A  greater  quantity  of  rain  falls  in  the  south 
of  Europe  than  in  its  middle  portions,  and  more  in  its 
middle  latitudes  than  farther  north.  Warm  countries,  in 
general,  have  more  rain  than  cold  countries.  The  average 
number  of  days  in  the  year  upon  which  rain  occurs  is  few- 
est in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  increases  toward  the  north. 

Minerals.  Europe  is  richly  supplied  with  the  most 
useful  minerals  and  metals, — coal,  iron,  etc., —  and  also 
produces  considerable  quantities  of  the  precious  metals. 

Wild  Animals.  Many  of  the  wild  animals  that  formerly 
existed  have  been  exterminated.  The  wild  ox  still  exists 
in  Russia;  the  fallow  deer  and  the  red  deer  belong  to  mid- 
dle Europe;  the  chamois  and  the  ibex  are  native  to  the  high 
mountain  region  of  the  Alps,  but  are  now  few  in  number. 

Domestic  Animals.  The  sheep,  ox,  pig,  goat,  horse, 
and  dog  exist  in  every  part  of  Europe. 

Birds.  The  web-footed  tribes,  such  as  geese  and  ducks, 
are  most  numerous  in  high  latitudes.  The  stork,  the  crane, 
the  heron,  the  pelican,  and  the  spoonbill  belong  to  the  west 
and  the  south  of  Europe.  The  vulture  and  eagle  tribes  are 
most  numerous  in  the  high  mountain  region  of  the  south. 
The  owl  is  found  in  every  part  of  the  continent. 

Reptiles.  Europe  is  singularly  free  from  venomous 
reptiles.  Lizards  are  common  in  the  countries  that  border 
on  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  chameleon  is  found  in  Spain. 

Fish.  Fish  of  nearly  every  variety  abound  in  the  seas 
and  rivers  of  Europe,  and  are  used  extensively  as  food  for 
man. 

Insects.  The  most  useful  member  of  the  insect  tribe, 
the  honey-bee,  is  propagated  in  most  European  countries. 
The  silk-worm  is  reared  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  Flies,  as 
well  as  other  familiar  aud 
harmless  insects,  are  common 
in  Europe. 

Inhabitants.  The  popu- 
lation of  Europe,  amounting 
to  a  total  of  350,000,000  peo- 
ple, consists,  for  the  most  part, 
of  what  is  known  as  the  Cau- 
casian, or  Aryan,  race.  Nine 
tenths  of  the  whole  belong 
to  this  stock  of  nations.  The 
nations  of  southern  Europe 
are  distinguished  by  their 
darker  complexions  and  gen- 
erally slender  frames.  Robust 
frames,  fair  complexions,  light 
eyes  and  hair,  are  marks  of  the  people  of  the  middle  and 
north  of  Europe. 

Language.  The  languages  of  Europe,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Turkish,  are  of  Aryan  origin,  and  may  be  classed 


Italy.     Lake  Como 


under  four  principal  heads,  corresponding  to  the  four  great 
races  of  the  continent, —  the  Celtic,  the  Teutonic,  the  Greek- 
Latin,  and  the  Slavonic. 

Religion.  The  Protestant  religion  predominates  in  the 
Teutonic  countries,  the  Roman  Catholic  in  the  Romanic 
countries,  except  Greece,  and  the  Greek  Church  in  the 
Slavonic  countries.  Of  the  350,000,000  inhabitants  of 
Europe,  150,000,000  are  Roman  Catholics,  80,000,000  be- 
long to  the  Greek  Church,  75,000,000  are  Protestants, 
10,000,000  are  Mohammedans  or  heathens,  and  7,000,000 
are  Jews. 

Education.  All  the  great  nations  of  Europe  are  well 
advanced  in  education.  Schools,  colleges,  and  universities 
are  found  in  every  European  state.  There  are  more  people 
unable  to  read  and  write  in  Russia  and  in  Hungary  than  in 
any  other  part,  and  fewest  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and 
Germany. 

Government.  The  government  of  ever5r  country  in 
Europe,  except  France  and  Switzerland,  is  monarchical  in 
form,  and  is  despotic  in  Russia  and  Turkey,  but  limited 
in  the  United  Kingdom  and  other  countries.  France  and 
Switzerland  are  republics,  as  are  the  small  states  of  San 
Marino  and  Andorra. 

Political  Divisions.     Europe  is  politically  divided  into  — 

Four  Empires:  Russia,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Turkey. 

Eleven  Kingdoms:  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Sweden  and  Norway, 
Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  Portugal,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  Roumania, 
i   and  Servia. 

Two  Republics:  France  and  Switzerland  (and  the  minor  protected 
republics  of  San  Marino  and  Andorra). 

Four  Principalities:  Montenegro,  and  the  minor  principalities  of 
Luxembourg,  Monaco,  and  Liechtenstein. 

The  countries  of  Europe  may  be  also  arranged  according  to  their 
"  rank,"  or  power,  in  the  following  order: — 

1.  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Austria-Hungary,  Russia,  and 
Italy.     These  are  the  "  Six  Great  Powers  "  of  Europe. 

2.  Sweden  and  Norway,  Spain. 

3.  Turkey,  Belgium,  Holland, 
Denmark,  Portugal,  Switzerland, 
Greece,  Roumania,  Servia,  and 
Montenegro. 

QUESTIONS  ON  EUROPE. 
How  does  Europe  compare  in 
size  with  the  other  continents?  De- 
scribe some  of  the  principal  natural 
features  of  Europe.  What  are  its 
principal  mountain  ranges?  What 
is  said  of  the  Alps?  Describe  some 
of  the  principal  river  systems  of 
Europe.  Name  and  describe  the 
inland  seas.  Tell  what  you  can  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  What  does 
the  name  "Mediterranean"  mean? 
State  some  peculiar  fact  about  the 
Zuider  Zee.  For  what  are  some 
of  the  principal  European  rivers 
noted?  What  varieties  of  climate 
has  Europe?  Why  is  the  climate  of 
southern  Europe  milder  than  that  of  northern  Europe?  What  is  said 
of  the  minerals  of  Europe?  What  is  said  of  the  animals  of  Europe? 
What  is  said  of  the  languages  of  Europe?  Compare  the  languages 
of  Europe  with  that  of  the  United  States.  What  are  the  forms  of  gov- 
ernment in  Europe?     Name  the  six  great  powers  of  Europe. 


84 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 

The  British  Isles  consist  of  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and 
a  number  of  small  islands. 

Great  Britain  consists  of  England,  "Wales,  and  Scot- 
land, and  is  the  largest  island  in  Europe,  being  600  miles 
in  length,  and  having  an  area  of 
nearly  89,000  square  miles. 

Ireland  is  west  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  is  about  one  third  the  size 

of  the  latter. 

The  principal  islands  adjoining  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  are  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
off  the  south  of  England ;  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  islands,  off  the  north,  and  the 
Hebrides  off  the  west,  coast  of  Scotland ; 
Anglesey  and  the  Isle  of  Man,  in  the 
Irish  Sea ;  Valentia  Island,  Achil  Island, 
and  the  Aran  Islands,  off  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland. 


London  Bridge.     Diamond  Jubilee  Procession 


Coasts.     The  coasts  of  England  are  more  or  less    irregular,  and 

exhibit  a  great  number  of  capes  and  inlets. 

Mountains.     England  has  a  gently  sloping  or  undulating  surface, 

rising,  in  some  places,  into  lofty  hills.     Wales  is  very  mountainous. 

The  highest   elevation  in  England  is  Scaw  Fell,  reaching  3,208  feet 

above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Plains.  The  York  Plain,  the  Cum- 
brian and  Cheshire  plains,  the  Central 
Plain,  the  district  of  the  Fens,  the  Eastern 
Plain,  the  Valley  of  the  Severn,  and  the 
Valley  of  the  Thames  are  the  largest. 

Rivers.  The  longest  rivers,  with  one 
exception,  are  on  the  eastern  side  of  Eng- 
land, and  flow -into  the  North  Sea.  The 
main  slope  of  the  country  is  therefore  tow- 
ard the  east.  The  Thames1  is  one  of  the 
three  longest  rivers  in  the  British  Isles, 
and  ranks  first  in  order  of  importance, 
since  London,  the  metropolis  of  the  em- 
pire, 's  built  upon  its  banks.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  the  largest  vessels  nearly  to 
London  Bridge,  and  for  smaller  craft  to 


Witches'  Stairway 


•    The  Lakes  of  Killarney. 

The    United    Kingdom    of    Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  is  formed  by  the 
political  union  of  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  Ireland,   and 
the  adjacent  islands. 

The  British  Empire  is  formed  by  the  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  its  numerous  colonies  and 
possessions  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  area  of  the  British  Empire  is  upwards  of  eleven  mil- 
lion square  miles,  or  about  one  sixth  of  all  the  land  of  the 
globe. 

The  population  is  about  three  hundred  and  eighty  mil- 
lions, or  about  one  fifth  of  the  total  inhabitants  of  the 
world. 

ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 

England1  and  Wales  constitute  the'  most  important 
portion  of  the  British  Isles. 

Boundaries.  England  is  divided  from  Scotland  by  the  Tweed 
River,  the  Cheviot  Hills,  and  the  Solway  Firth ;  from  Ireland  by  the 
Irish  Sea  and  St.  George's  Channel;  from  France  by  the  English 
Channel  and  the  Strait  of  Dover;  and  from  Belgium,  Holland,  and 
Germany  by  the  North  Sea. 

Extent.  The  greatest  length  of  England  — from  Berwick  to  the 
Lizard  — is  423  miles.  England  embraces  an  area  of  50,823  square 
miles,  and  Wales,  7,363  square  miles. 


Windsor  Castle,  from  the  Thames. 


1  England,  Angle-land,  "the  land  of  the  Angles."  The  Angles 
were  the  most  numerous  of  the  Saxon  invaders  of  Britain.  Anciently 
Albion;  so  called  from  the  white  cliffs  of  Kent. 


Lechlade,  160  miles  from  the  sea.  The  Severn 
is  the  longest  river  in  Britain.  It  drains  an 
area  of  4,500  square  miles,  and  is  navigable  170  miles  from  the  sea. 

Lakes.  The  largest  English  lake  is  Windermere,  14  miles  long 
and  1  mile  broad. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  England  is  temperate  and 
healthful.  The  frequent  occurrence  of  rain  and  the  general 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere  are  due  to  the  insular  position 
of  Britain.  The  mean  temperature  of  summer  in  London 
is  63.8°;  of  winter,  37.3°.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is 
50.55°.    The  average  annual  rainfall  at  London  is  24  inches. 

Minerals.  The  minerals  most  necessary  to  man  —  coal  and  iron, 
copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  tin  —  are  abundant  in  England  and  Wales. 

Plants  and  Animals.  The  cultivation  of  the  land  has  reduced 
the  size  of  the  forests,  and  the  wild  animals  have  practically  been 
banished.  Among  the  trees,  the  elm,  birch,  poplar,  alder,  yew,  and 
Scotch  fir  are  native  to  the  soil.  The  apple,  the  hazel-nut,  the  wil- 
low, the  thorn,  the  blackberry,  are  also  found  in  England. 

Inhabitants.  England  and  Wales  have  more  inhabi- 
tants to  the  square  mile  than  any  other  country  in  Europe, 
except  Belgium.  The  population  is  about  twenty- nine  mil- 
lions, or  about  four  hundred  and  ninety-eight  people  to  the 
square  mile. 

The  people  of  England  belong  to  the  Teutonic  race;  those 
of  Wales  and  Cornwall  are  of  Celtic  origin.     Of  the  Celtic 


'Thames,  Thamesis,  "  the  broad  Isis.' 


The  British  Islands. 


85 


race,  the  Gaels  were  evidently  the  first  settlers  in  the  south 
of  England.  Of  the  Teutonic  race,  the  Angles,  Jutes,  and 
Saxons  first  invaded  Britain.  Later,  the  Danes  and  Nor- 
mans also  settled  in  England.  These  elements  formed  the 
foundation  of  the  English  nation 

The  language  is  mainly 
derived  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  but  with  a  large  ad- 
mixture of  Latin,  Greek, 
Norman  French,  and  other 
foreign  words. 


commerce  of  the  sea.  Sugar,  coffee,  tea,  tobacco,  spices, 
wines,  hides,  skins,  tallow,  wool,  raw  cotton,  corn,  and 
flour  are  imported  from  different  countries;  and  cotton, 
woolen,  linen,  and  silken  goods,  iron  and  steel,  tin,  coal, 
machinery,  earthenware,  stationery,  books,  and  other  man- 
ufactured products  are 
the  exports. 

Cities.  Three  fifths 
of  the  people  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales  live  in 
cities  and  towns.     One 


Industries.  Manufacture  and  trad3 
are  the  great  national  industries  of  Eng- 
land. Its  agricultural  products  are  not 
equal  to  the  amount  that  the  people  need 
for  food.  There  is,  however,  considerable 
farming  and  stock-raising.  Cotton,  wool, 
and  iron  are  the  three  great  staples  that 
are  manufactured.  Besides  these,  there 
are  manufactures  of  silk  and  linen,  hosiery 
and  lace,  leather,  earthenware,  glass,  watches  and  clocks, 
and  paper. 

Internal  Communication.    Good  roads  and  well-kept 

canals  render  inter-communication  easy  in  every  part  of  the 
country,  England  being  particularly  noted  for  good  roads. 
There  are  25,000  miles  of  turnpike  roads,  and  more  than 
100,000  miles  of  cross  roads. 

Railways.  From  London  railways  extend  in  every  di- 
rection. The  railways  of  England  carry  over  six  hundred 
million  passengers  and  great  quantities  of  freight  each  year. 

Commerce.  The  import  of  raw  material  and  the  ex- 
port of  manufactured  goods  make  England  the  ruler  of  the 


On  the  Clyde 


sixth  of  the  total  population  lives  in 
London,  Liverpool,  and  Manchester. 

The  ten  largest  towns  in  England 
and  Wales  are  the  following:  London, 
with  a  population  of  5,500,000;  Liver- 
pool, 730,000;  Manchester  and  Salford, 
703,000;  Birmingham,  429,000;  Leeds, 
368,000;  Sheffield,  324,000;  Bristol, 
222,000;  Bradford,  216,000;  Notting- 
ham, 212,000;   Hull,  200,000. 

Government.  The  government  is  constitutional,  and 
the  monarchy  is  limited  and  hereditary. 

The  legislative  power  is  divided  between  the  sovereign 
and  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  annual  revenue  is  derived  from  customs,  excise, 
stamps,  and  taxes. 

The  British  army  is  small,  compared  with  the  large  ar- 
mies of  the  Continental  powers,  but  the  navy  is  the  largest 
and  most  powerful  in  the  world. 

Religion  and  Education.  There  is  religious  equality 
and  freedom  of  worship  in  the  United  Kingdom.     Elemen- 


86 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


tary  education  is  compulsory,  and  was  made  free  in  Scot- 
land in  1889,  and  in  England  and  Wales  in  1891. 

Higher  education  is  provided  by  the  universities  of 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  Durham,  Victoria,  and  London,  in 
England;  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  St.  Andrews,  and  Aber- 
deen, in  Scotland;  the  Royal,  the  Catholic,  and  the  Dublin 
universities,  ill  Ireland;  and  the  University  of  Wales,  incor- 
porated in  1894.  There  are  university  colleges  at  London, 
Liverpool,  Manchester,  Leeds,  Birmingham,  Bristol,  New- 
castle, Nottingham,  and  Sheffield,  in  England;  at  Cardiff, 
Bangor,  and  Aberystwith,  in  Wales;  and  Dundee,  in  Scot- 
land. In  Ireland,  higher  education  is  given  in  the  Queen's 
colleges  at  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway,  and  at  other  institu- 
tions . 

THE  BRITISH   EMPIRE. 

The  British  Empire,  besides  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
has  a  vast  number  of  colonies,  protectorates,  dependencies, 
and  territories  in  every  part  of  the  globe. 


Area  in 
In  Er ROPE —  So..  Milks. 

The  United  Kingdom 120,97:! 

England  mid  Wales 58,310 

Scotland 29,785 

Ireland 32,583 

The  Isle  of  Man 220 

The  Channel  Islands 78 

Gibraltar 2 

Malta 117 

In  Asia  — 

India 1,587,104 

British  India   944,108 

Feudatory  States 042. 990 

Ceylon 25,364 

Cyprus 3,584 

Aden  and  Perim 70 

The  Straits  Settlements 1,472 

British  North  Borneo 30,000 

Labuan .  31 

Sarawak : 50,000 

Brunei ,'!,000 

Hongkong 29 

In  Africa  — 

Cape  Colony 

Natal .' 

Basutoland 

Zululand 

Beehuanaland 

Zarabesia 

British  East  Africa 

North  Somali  Coast 

Gambia 

Sierra  Leone 

Gold  Coast 

Lagos  

Niger  Coast  Protectorate 

Niger  Territories 

Ascension 

St.  Helena 

Mauritius 

Zanzibar  and  Pemba 

Socotra 


221,311 

20,460 

9,720 

8,900 

222,000 

500,000 

,000,000 

30,000 

2,700 

15,000 

40,000 

1,071 

500,000 

35 

47 

705 

985 

1,382 


Ix  America  — 

Dominion  of  Canada 3 

Newfoundland 

British  West  Indies 

Jamaica 

The  Bahamas 

The  Leeward  Islands 

The  Windward  Islands 

Trinidad  and  Tobago 

Barbados 

The  Bermudas 

British  Honduras 

British  Guiana 

Falkland  Islands 


,456,383 
42,200 

4,424 

5,450 
701 
508 

1,868 

166 

20 

7,560 
109,000 

6,500 


Population. 

38,104,973 

29,002,505 

4,034,750 

4,706,162 

55,608 

92,234 

25,755 

105,662 


280,690,960 

220,530,000 

66,107,860 

3,008,239 

209,291 

41,910 

506,577 

150,000 

6,000 

300,000 

221,441 


1,527,221 
543,913 
218,902 
180,000 


13,500,000 

240,000 

50,000 

180,000 

1,905,000 

100,000 

20,000,000 

360 
4,116 

380,000 

377,980 

10,000 


4,829,411 
197,335 

639,491 

48,000 

129,760 

135,976 

228,757 

182,322 

15,884 

31,471 

284,887 

1,789 


Area  is 

In  Australasia  — ■  So..  Miles. 

New  South  Wales 310,700 

Victoria 87,884 

Queensland 668,497 

South  Australia 903,690 

Western  Australia 1,060,000 

Tasmania 26,215 

New  Zealand 104,471 

British  New  Guinea 88,000 

Fiji 7,740 


Population. 

1,134,207 

1,140,411 

393,718 

315,048 

90,000 

146,667 

626,830 

150,000 

121,180 


SCOTLAND. 

Scotland  '  is  the  northern  portion  of  the  island  of  Great 
Britain. 

Boundaries.  Scotland  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean;  on  the  south  by  England  and  part  of  the  Irish  Sea; 
and  on  the  East  by  the  North  Sea.     It  has  an  area  of  30,000  miles. 

Coasts.  The  coasts  of  Scotland  are  more  indented  than  those  of 
England.  The  smaller  inlets  are  called  lochs.  There  are  many  capes, 
inlets,  and  channels. 

Scotland  has  about  700  islands. 

Mountains.  Scotland  is  divided  into  the  Highlands  and  the  Low- 
lands. The  Lowlands  are  by  no  means  level,  but  embrace  numerous 
hilly  tracts,  Ben  Nevis,  4,406  feet  above  the  sea-level,  is  the  highest 
mountain,  not  only  in  Scotland,  but  in  the  British  Isles. 


Ben  Nevis,  Scotland. 

Rivers.  The  principal  rivets  flow  into  the  North  Sea.  The  Tweed 
is  96  miles  long,  and  is  noted  for  its  salmon  fisheries.  The  Dee  is  87 
miles  in  length.  The  Clyde,  which  is  navigable  to  Glasgow,  is  9(5 
miles  long. 

Lakes.  Scotland  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  lakes.  Loch  Lomond 
is  known  as  "the  pride  of  the  Lakes,"  exceeding  all  the  others  in 
extent  and  beauty.  Loch  Katrine,  19  miles  long  and  J4  mile  broad,  is 
the  scene  of  Scott's  "Lady  of  the  Lake." 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Scotland  is  colder  than  that 
of  England.  The  winters  are  more  severe,  and  the  rains 
more  abundant.  The  rainfall  is  from  22  to  33  inches  on 
the  east  coast,  and  from  30  to  44  inches  on  the  west  coast . 

Natural  Productions.  The  natural  productions  are 
about  the  same  as  those  of  England.  Clydesdale  is  noted 
for  a  fine  breed  of  horses,  and  the  Shetland  Islands  for  the 
hardy  Shetland  ponies. 

'Scotland,  the  "land  of  the  Scots."  The  Scots  were  a  Celtic 
tribe  from  northern  Ireland,  who  passed  over  and  settled  in  Cantire  in 
503.  In  843  the  king  of  the  Scots  ruled  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Scot- 
land, north  of  the  Clyde  and  Forth. 


The  British  Islands. 


87 


Inhabitants.  The  people  of  the  Highlands  and  the 
Lowlands  are  two  distinct  races,  speaking  different  tongues. 
The  language  of  the  Lowlands  resembles  the  English,  and 
that  of  the  Highlands  is  a  Celtic  dialect,  called  the  Gaelic. 

Industrial  Pursuits.  Scotland  is  principally  a  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  country,  and  farming  is  practiced 
with  great  skill  in  the  Lowlands.  Ship-building  is  exten- 
sively carried  on  at  Glasgow. 

Commerce.  The  commerce  of  Scotland  resembles  that 
of  England. 

Counties  and  Towns.  Scotland  is  divided  into  33  counties.  The 
principal  towns  are  Edinburgh,  which  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  Scottish 
universities,  and  the  literary  metropolis  of  the  north. 
Glasgow  is  the  center  of  the  cotton  manufacture,  the 
iron  trade,  and  the  foreign  commerce  of  Scotland. 
Aberdeen,  between  the  rivers  Dee  and  Don,  is  also  an 
important  city,  and  is  noted  for  its  commerce  and  dis- 
tinguished for  its  university. 

IRELAND. 

Ireland,1  the  second  largest  island  of  the 
British  Isles,  lies  west  of  Great  Britain. 

Boundaries.  Ireland  is  bounded  on -the  north, 
west,  and  south  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the 
east  by  the  North  Channel,  the  Irish  Sea,  and  St. 
George's  Channel. 

Coasts.  The  entire  length  of  coast  line,  including 
the  larger  inlets,  is  about  two  thousand  miles,  or  one 
mile  of  coast  to  every  fifteen  square  miles  of  area.  It 
has  numerous  capes  and  inlets,  and  a  number  of  small 
islands. 

Mountains.  Ireland  is  level  in  the  interior,  but 
has  high  mountain  tracts  adjoining  various  portions  of 
the  coast.  The  highest  mountains  are  in  the  south- 
west, known  as  the  Kerry  Mountains.  The  highest 
peak  is  13,414  feet. 

Plains.     A  nearly  level  plain  extends  across  the 
middle  of  the  island  from  Dublin  to  Galway  Bay.     In  some  parts  of 
the  plain  are  extensive  bogs.2     The  total  extent  of  the  bog  lands  is 
about  5,000  square  miles. 


Rivers.  The  island  abounds  in  inland  waters.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Bann,  the  Lagan,  the  Barrow,  the  Liffey,  and  the  Shan- 
non. Dublin,  the  metropolis  of  the  island,  is  on  the  banks  of  the 
Liffey.  The  Shannon  is  the  longest  river  in  Ireland,  and  is  navigable 
213  miles  from  the  sea. 

Lakes.  There  are  a  number  of  beautiful  lakes  in  Ireland.  The 
Lakes  of  Killarney,  having  an  area  of  ten  square  miles,  are  celebrated 
for  their  beautiful  scenery. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Ireland  is  more  moist  than 
that  of  England.  This  gives  more  verdure  to  the  fields  and 
a  superior  freshness  and  brightness  to  the  vegetation.  The 
winters  are  nearly  always  mdd.  The  average  rainfall  at 
Cork  is  40  inches. 


An  Irish  Cottage  of  To-day. 


1  Ireland  ( Gaelic ) ,  "  western  isle . ' '  The  native  name  is  Erin .  The 
Komans  called  it  Hibernia.  To  the  Phoenicians  it  was  known  as  Ierne. 
The  ancients  called  it  the  "Emerald  Isle,"  on  account  of  its  verdure. 

2  Of  the  bogs  of  Ireland,  the  black  is  the  most  valuable  for  fuel.  It 
is  not  so  capable  of  being  reclaimed  as  the  red  and  brown  bogs. 


The  Wishing-chair,  Giant's  Causeway. 

Natural  Productions.  Ireland  is  inferior  to  England 
and  Scotland  in  the  production  of  coal,  but  produces  cop- 
per, lead,  iron,  and  other  minerals,  and  a  high  grade  of 
marble  and  building-stone. 

Inhabitants.  The  population  of  Ireland  in  1891  was 
four  and  three  quarter  millions, —  but  little  more  than  half 
its  population  in  1841.  Vast  numbers  of  the  Irish  people 
emigrated  to  other  lands,  and  famine,  with  its  attendant 
sickness  and  suffering,  tended  to  reduce  the  population. 

Industrial  Pursuits.  Ireland  is  chiefly  an  agricul- 
tural country.  Cattle  and  pigs  and  farm  produce  are  its 
chief  industrial  wealth. 

Ireland  is  divided  into  four  provinces;    namely,  Leinster,  . 
Ulster,  Minister,  and  Connaught. 

Cities.  Dublin  is  the  capital  of  Ireland.  It  has  a  fine  artificial 
harbor,  fine  public  buildings,  and  is  the  seat  of  several  universities. 
Belfast  is  the  seat  of  the  linen  manufacture  of  Ireland.  Limerick  is 
rich  in  historical  memories.  It  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Shannon.  It  was  once  the  stronghold  of  the  Roman  Catholic  cause, 
and  sustained  two  great  sieges  in  behalf  of  James  11.  in  1690.  Cork 
is  the  third  city  of  importance,  in  regard  to  population.  It  has  a  great 
foreign  trade. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

Britain  first  became  known  to  the  other  peoples  of  Europe  through 
the  Phoenicians.  The  Romans  under  Ca?sar  invaded  Britain  in  55  B.  C, 
and  remained  there  until  the  fifth  century.     The  Teutonic  (that  is,  the 


88 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


German)  tribes  came  across  the  North  Sea  to  Britain  on  the  departure 
of  the  Komans.  These  invading  tribes  included  the  Angles,  Saxons, 
and  Jutes,  and  the  country  was  called  "  Angle-land,"  from  the  name 
of  the  principal  tribe;  hence  the  name  "England."  The  compound 
name,  "Anglo-Saxon,"  as  applied  to  the  language  and  people,  is 
a  modern  formation.  In  1066,  England  was  invaded  by  the  Normans 
under  William  the  Conqueror,  Duke  of  Normandy.  He  subjugated  the 
country,  and  for  a  long  time  two  distinct  languages  were  spoken  in 
England.  The  speech  of  the  common  people  was  Anglo-Saxon,  while 
the  official  language  was  Norman  French.  From  the  union  of  the  two 
tongues  our  modern  English  is  derived.  Wales  was  united  to  England 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  Scotland  was  united  to  England  in  1603, 
when  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  son  of  the  unfortunate  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  succeeded  Elizabeth  on  the  English  throne.  The  modern  history 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  begins  at  this  time.  James  dispossessed 
the  turbulent  native  Irish  chiefs  of  their  territory  in  Ulster,  and  peo- 
pled the  northeastern  part  of  the  province  with  Lowland  Scotch  and 
English  colonists,  but  Ireland,  as  a  whole,  was  never  thoroughly  sub- 
dued until  Cromwell  overran  the  island.  Complete  political  union  of 
Ireland  with  Great  Britain  was  accomplished  in  1801. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 

Of  what  do  the  British  Isles  consist?  Of  what  does  Great  Britain 
consist?  Of  what  does  the  British  Empire  consist?  What  is  said  of 
the  surface  of  Great  Britain?  What  is  said  of  its  mineral  wealth?  Of 
its  agriculture?  Of  its  stock-raising?  Of  its  manufactures?  Describe 
the  government  of  England.  What  is  the  longest  river  in  Great  Britain? 
Which  is  the  most  noted  river?  Describe  the  climate  of  Great  Britain. 
What  is  said  of  the  people  of  Great  Britain?  What  is  the  number  of 
the  inhabitants  of  England  and  Wales?  About  how  many  people  are 
there  to  the  square  mile?  Describe  the  language  of  England.  Name 
some  of  the  chief  towns  of  England.  Name  some  of  the  imports  and 
exports  of  England.  Name  several  of  the  principal  universities  in 
England.  Name  a  few  of  the  most  important  colonies  of  the  British 
Empire.  Name  some  of  the  industries  of  Scotland.  Describe  some  of 
the  natural  features  of  Scotland.  Name  two  of  its  principal  cities, 
and  state  for  what  each  is  noted.  Describe  Ireland.  What  is  the 
meaning  of  the  name  "Ireland"?  Why  did  the  ancients  call  it  the 
Emerald  Isle?  What  is  meant  by  the  "bogs  "  of  Ireland?  Name  sev- 
eral of  the  rivers  of  Ireland.  What  lakes  in  Ireland  are  celebrated  for 
their  beauty?  What  are  the  industrial  pursuits  of  the  people?  When 
were  the  English  and  Scottish  kingdoms  united?  What  was  the  name 
of  the  Scottish  king  who  succeeded  to  the  English  throne?  Who 
was  the  mother  of  this  Scottish  king?  How  did  he  more  closely  unite 
Ireland  with  Great  Britain?    Who  thoroughly  subdued  Ireland? 


GERMANY. 

Germany  is  in  central  Europe. 
The  German  Empire  is  a  federal  union 
of  twenty- five  states  and  the  imperial  ter- 
ritory of  Alsace-Lorraine. 

Boundaries.  Germany  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  North  Sea,  Denmark,  and  the  Baltic 
Sea;  on  the  south  by  Switzerland  and  Austria; 
on  the  east  by  Austria  and  Russia;  and  on  the 
west  by  France,  Belgium,  and  Holland. 

Extent.     The  total  area  of  the  German  Em- 
pire is  211,000  square  miles.     Its  greatest  length, 
from  southwest  to  northeast,  is  about  850  miles; 
and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  north  to  south,  about  580  miles. 

Natural  Features.  Germany  is,  for  the  most  part,  level,  but  it 
has  a  number  of  mountain  ranges.  The  most  noted  of  these  ranges 
are  the  Harz  Mountains;  the  Schwarz  Wald,  or  Black  Forest,  which 
separates  the  basins  of  the  Rhine  and  Danube;  and  the  Thuringer 
Wald,  between  the  basins  of  the  Elbe  and  Rhine.  The  height  of  the 
ranges  in  central  Germany  seldom  exceed  3,000  feet.  The  highest 
point  in  Germany,  north  of  the  Danube,  is  5,274  feet.  The  peak  of 
Zug-spitz,  in  South  Bavaria,  is  9,716  feet  high. 

Rivers.  The  Rhine  is  the  principal  river  in  Germany.  Its  sources 
and  upper  course  are  in  Switzerland,  and  the  Neckar  and  Main  are  two 
of  its  tributaries.  The  Rhine  is  navigable  to  the  Falls  of  Schaffhausen. 
Between  Mainz  and  Bonn  the  river  is  famous  for  its  beauty,  and  the 
Falls  of  the  Rhine  are  much  admired.  Other  important  rivers  are  the 
Ems,  Elbe,  Weser,  Oder,  and  Danube. 

Climate.  In  the  uplands  the  winters  are  severe,  snow 
often  lying  on  the  ground  from  October  to  May;  but  in  the 
lower  river  valleys  the  climate  is  delightful,  and  the  vine 
gro.ws  to  perfection. 

Natural  Productions.  The  forests  are  extensive,  and 
give  shelter  to  wild  animals,  such  as  the  wolf,  wild  boar, 
and  deer.  The  minerals  include  coal,  with  iron  and  other 
metals,  chiefly  found  in  the  Rhine  province  and  in  the  Harz 
Mountains.  Precious  stones,  and  some  gold,  silver,  and 
copper,  are  also  found.  There  are  many  famous  mineral 
springs,  of  which  the  principal  ones  are  Baden-Baden,  Set- 
ters, Wiesbaden,  and  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


The  Reichstag  Building,  Berlin. 


City  of  Oberammergau. 


The  Cologne  Bridge. 


Sweden  and  Norway.  —  Switzerland. 


93 


Lakes.  The  largest  lake  in  Sweden  is  Lake  Wenner,  which  is  the 
third  largest  lake  in  Europe.  It  has  an  area  of  2,136  square  miles.  The 
lakes  of  Norway  are  said  to  number  30,000,  while  in  Sweden  they  cover 
nearly  one  tenth  of  the  entire  area. 

Climate.  The  atmosphere  of  both  Sweden  and  Norway 
is  dry  and  healthful.  The  winters  are  long.  The  summers, 
while  short,  are  very  hot  and  dry.  Bergen  is  one  of  the 
wettest  places  in  Europe.     The  mean  rainfall  is  82  inches. 

Productions.  The  most  valuable  products  of  Scandi- 
navia are  its  mines,  its  fisheries,  and  its  forests.  The  bear, 
wolf,  fox,  lynx,  and  the  lemming,  or  field-rat,  are  the  wild 
animals,  while  the  reindeer  is  used  as  a  domestic  animal. 

Inhabitants.  The  population  of  Sweden  numbers 
about  five  millions,  and  that  of  Norway  over  two  millions. 
The  people  are  of  the  Teutonic  race. 

Industries.  In  the  southern  part  of  Sweden  there  is 
considerable  farming.  The  people  of  both  countries,  how- 
ever, are  excellent  seamen.  The  principal  ports  are  Stock- 
holm, Gottenborg,  Christiania,  and  Bergen.  There  are 
about  6,400  miles  of  railways  in  the  country,  and  the  Gota 
Canal,  in  Sweden,  consists  of  a  waterway  between  the  North 
Sea  and  the  Baltic. 

Government.  Sweden  and  Norway  are  independent 
kingdoms,  under  the  same  ruler. 

Education.  Education  is  free  and  compulsory,  and 
public  education  is  well  advanced  in  Sweden. 

Cities.  Stockholm  is  the  capital  of  Sweden,  and  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  two  countries.  Christiania  is 
the  capital  of  Norway,  and  lies  at  the  head  of  a  long  fiord 
called  by  its  name. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

The  Scandinavian  countries  were  the  home  of  the  Northmen  who 
made  conquests  in  England,  France,  and  other  European  countries. 
Authentic  history  of  these  countries  begins  in  the  ninth  century,  when 
the  many  little  kingdoms  of  Norway  were  united  under  one  king.  In 
the  fourteenth  century,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  were  united, 
but  in  1523  Sweden  became  independent.  In  1814  Norway  was  ceded  to 
Sweden. 

QUESTIONS  ON  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 

Locate  Norway  and  Sweden.  How  are  they  governed?  What 
peninsula  do  they  compose?  Why  is  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  not 
very  profitable?  What  is  the  chief  industry?  What  is  the  religion  of 
the  people?  What  is  the  capital  of  Norway  and  Sweden?  Name  the 
other  principal  cities. 

SWITZERLAND. 

Switzerland1  is  an  entirely  inland 
country,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Germany,  on  the  east  by  Austria,  and 
on  the  west  by  France. 

Extent.  Its  greatest  length  from  east  to 
west  is  208  miles,  and  its  breadth  from  north 
to  south  is  156  miles.  Its  area  is  nearly  16,000 
square  miles. 

Mountains.  Switzerland  is  a  mountainous 
country.  Two  thirds  of  its  surface  consist  of 
high  mountains  and  intervening  valleys,  the 
other  third  being  an  elevated  plain.  The  Alps 
of  Switzerland   consist  of  several    continuous  chains,  and  are  noted 

1  Switzerland,  French,  La  Suisse;  German,  Schweiz,  from  the  forest 
canton  of  Schwyz. 


for  their  beauty.  The  Pennine  Alps  contain  Mont  Rosa,  15,217  feet 
high,  and  the  Matterhorn,  14,705  feet  high.  The  passes  of  the  great 
St.  Bernard,  8,120  feet;  and  Matterjoch,  11,014  feet  high.  The 
Lepontine  Alps  contain  Mont  Leone,  11,696  feet;  Mont  St.  Gothard, 
and  the  passes  of  the  Simplon,  6,595  feet,  over  which  Napoleon 
constructed  his  military  road  in  1802.  Besides  these  there  are  the 
Rha^tian  Alps  and  the  Bernese  Alps. 

Rivers.  The  Rhine  and  the  Rhone  are  the  two  most  important  of 
the  Swiss  rivers. 

Lakes.  Switzerland  abounds  in  beautiful  lakes.  The  principal 
ones  are:  Geneva,  230  square  miles;  Lake  Constance,  183  square 
miles;  Lake  Neuchatel,  93  square  miles;  and  Lake  Lucerne,  40  square 
miles. 

Climate.  The  elevation  of  the  country  renders  the 
climate  of  Switzerland  cold,  but  the  shores  of  Lake  Geneva 
are  especially  distinguished  for  their  warm  and  equable 
temperature.  In  the  higher  regions,  however,  the  winters 
are  long  and  severe.  In  some  of  the  deep  and  narrow 
valleys,  man;  of  the  inhabitants  are  afflicted  with  cretin- 
ism and  goiter. 

Products.  All  the  ordinary  domestic  animals  of  Europe 
are  found.  The  wild  animals  include  the  bear,  wolf,  lynx, 
and  chamois;  and  the  birds  found  are  the  eagle  and  the 
bearded  vulture.  The  vine  flourishes  in  the  lower  valleys, 
and  wheat  and  other  grains  are  also  grown.  Timber  is 
abundant  on  the  mountain  sides.  There  are  numerous 
mineral  springs,  especially  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  and 
coal,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  rock-salt  are  to  be  found. 

Inhabitants.  Switzerland  has  a  population  of  about 
three  millions.  The  Swiss  are  not  so  much  a  distinct  na- 
tion as  an  offshoot  from  Germany,  France,  and  Italy. 
There  is  no  Swiss  language.  In  some  cantons  the  people 
speak  French;  in  some,  the  German  language;  and  in 
others,  the  Italian  language.  They  are  a  frugal  and  in- 
dustrious race.  In  the  mountain  regions  they  are  chiefly 
shepherds  and  herdsmen,  and  in  the  level  parts  of  the  coun- 
try considerable  manufacturing  is  done.  A  vast  number  of 
watches,  musical  boxes,  and  various  articles  of  jewelry  are 
produced.    Geneva  is  the  principal  seat  of  this  manufacture. 

Government  and  Education.    Switzerland  forms  a 

federal  republic.  Education  is  compulsory  and  highly  ad- 
vanced. Higher  education  is  given  at  the  universities  of 
Basel,  Berne,  Geneva,  and  Zurich. 

Cities.  The  city  of  Berne  ranks  as  the  capital  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation.  Geneva  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  beau- 
tiful lake  called  by  its  name,  where  the  Rhone  issues  from 
its  waters.     Zurich  is  distinguished  for  its  literary  culture. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

Switzerland  was  held  by  the  Romans  as  a  defense  against  the  Teu- 
tonic tribes.  It  formed  part  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  and  in  the 
eleventh  century  it  was  joined  to  the  German  Empire ;  but  the  Swiss 
rebelled  against  the  despotic  rule  of  the  Germans.  After  many  wars, 
the  independence  of  the  country  was  recognized  in  1648. 

QUESTIONS  ON  SWITZERLAND. 

Locate  Switzerland.  For  what  are  its  natural  features  noted?  Tell 
what  you  can  about  the  Alps.  Describe  some  of  its  lakes.  Describe 
the  climate  of  Switzerland.  Describe  the  products  of  the  country. 
Describe  the  people  and  their  occupations.  How  is  the  country  gov- 
erned? 


94 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


HOLLAND. 

Holland,1  or  The  Netherlands,  is 
a  small  country  of  western  Europe,  bor- 
dering on  the  North  Sea.  It  has  an  area 
of  12,648  square  miles.  Its  greatest 
length  is  196  miles;  its  greatest  breadth, 
109  miles. 

Coasts.  Holland  has  an  extensive  and  va- 
ried line  of  sea-coast.  It  is  low  everywhere, 
sometimes  below  the  sea-level,  and  enormous 
dykes  are  maintained  by  the  state,  which  alone 
prevent  the  sea  from  flooding  the  land.  The 
principal  inlet  is  the  Zuider  Zee,  which  was 
formed  by  an  irruption  of  the  sea  in  1282.  Before  that  the  center  of 
its  bed  was  occupied  by  a  small  lake.  Among  later  irruptions,  40  vil- 
lages, with  their  inhabitants,  were  destroyed,  in  1825,  in  Waterland. 


Church  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  Amsterdam. 

Surface.  Holland  is  a  flat  country,  and  large  parts  of  it  are  nat- 
urally marshy.  The  expense  of  constructing  and  maintaining  the  dykes 
is  enormous.  These  dykes  are  vast  embankments  of  earth,  30  feet 
high,  and  from  70  to  300  feet  broad,  strengthened  by  massive  timber- 
work  and  masonry,  and  the  piles  are  often  protected  by  iron  plates. 

Rivers.  The  Rhine,  the  Maas,  and  the  Scheldt  are  the  principal 
rivers. 

Climate.  Holland  is  rather  colder  than  England,  and 
the  winters  are  much  more  severe.  The  Zuider  Zee  is  oc- 
casionally, and  the  canals  are  always,  frozen  over  in  winter. 

'Holland,  ollant,  "marshy  ground." 


The  Hague. 

Productions.  There  are  no  metals,  and  but  few  min- 
erals. Both  building-stone  and  timber  are  scarce.  Water- 
fowl, swans,  and  storks  are  very  numerous. 

Inhabitants.  There  are  about  five  million  inhabitants 
in  Holland.  The  common  language  is  the  Dutch.  The 
Dutch,  as  the  people  of  Holland  are  called,  are  noted  for 
their  industry,  frugality,  and  cleanliness.  They  are  among 
the  best  farmers  and  the  most  successful  traders  in  the 
world. 

Industries.  Vast  numbers  of  cattle  are  reared,  and 
cheese,  butter,  etc.,  are  produced.  Ship-building,  sugar- 
refining,  and  gin-distilling  are  carried  on  extensively. 

Government.  The  government  is  a  hereditary  mon- 
archy, under  constitutional  forms. 

Education.  Education  is  in  an  advanced  condition. 
Elementary  schools,  and  also  the  schools  for  higher  educa- 
tion, are  among  the  best  in  Europe. 

Cities.     Amsterdam  is  the  largest  city  of  the  Nether- 


Rotterdam. 


Holland.  —  Denmark. 


95 


lands,  and  is  a  great  center  for  foreign  trade.  Ley  den  has 
a  university  of  great  repute.  Rotterdam  and  Utrecht  are 
other  noted  cities.  The  Hague  is  a  large  and  well-built 
city,  the  seat  of  government,  and  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom. 

Colonies.  Holland  has  extensive  colonies  in  the  Dutch 
East  and  West  Indies,  and  in  South  America. 

QUESTIONS  ON  HOLLAND. 
Locate  Holland.     Describe  its  natural  features.    What  are  its  prin- 
cipal rivers?    What  are  the  occupations  of  the  people?     How  are  they 
governed?     What  is  said  of  the  education  of  the  people?     Name  sev- 
eral of  its  important  cities? 

BELGIUM. 

Belgium1  is  a  small  country  in  the 
west  of  Europe.  It  has  an  area  of  11,373 
square  miles.  Its  greatest  extent  from 
east  to  west  is  about  ICO  miles,  and  from 
north  to  south,  about  115  miles.  It  is  a 
level  country. 

Rivers.  The  Meuse  and  the  Scheldt 
are  the  two  chief  rivers  of  Belgium. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  moist  in  the 
western  and  dry  in  the  eastern  provinces. 
Productions.  Belgium  is  rich  in  min- 
erals, and  possesses  extensive  coal-fields  and  deposits  of 
iron  ore. 

Inhabitants.  Belgium  has  more  people  to  the  square 
mile  than  any  other  country  in  Europe.  It  is  probably  the 
most  populous  in  the  world.  There  are  6,300,000  inhabi- 
tants, —  an  average  of  550  to  the  square  mile.  The  people 
are  noted  for  their  industry. 

Industries.  Corn,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  beets,  and 
clover  are  grown;  and  woolen,  linen,  lace,  cotton,  and  silk 
goods  are  manufactured.  The  people  have  also  a  large  in- 
come from  the  rearing  and  exportation  of  Belgian  hares. 
The  fine  laces  and  carpets  of  Brussels  and  Antwerp  are 
unrivaled  in  quality. 

Government.  Belgium  is  a  liberal  constitutional 
monarchy,  under  a  king. 

Education.  The  public  schools  are  supported  partly 
by  the  state,  and  partly  by  the  provinces  and  communes. 
There  are  four  universities:  Brussels,  Ghent,  Liege,  and 
Lou  vain. 

Cities.  Brussels  is  the  capital  of  Belgium.  It  stands 
on  the  river  Senne,  in  the  center  of  the  kingdom,  and  is  a 
well-built  and  attractive  city.  Among  the  interesting  places 
in  its  neighborhood  is  the  battle-field  of  Waterloo,  10  miles 
to  the  southward.  Antwerp  is  the  principal  port  of  Bel- 
gium, and  the  chief  center  of  its  foreign  trade. 

QUESTIONS  ON   BELGIUM. 

Locate  Belgium.  Describe  its  climate.  What  is  said  about  the 
number  of  inhabitants,  and  the  average  population  per  square  mile? 
For  what  are  the  people  noted?    From  what  places  do  we  get  fine  laces 

1  Belgium,  the  country  of  the  Belg»,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
country. 


and  carpets?  How  is  Belgium  governed?  What  is  said  of  the  public 
schools  of  Belgium?  What  is  the  capital  of  Belgium?  What  inter- 
esting historical  battle-field  is  near  Brussels?  What  is  the  principal 
port  of  Belgium? 

DENMARK. 

Denmark1  is  a  small  country  in  the 
northwest  of  Europe.  It  contains  nearly 
14,800  square  miles.  It  has  a  coast  line 
4,000  miles  in  length,  and  has  a  good 
position  for  the  commerce  of  the  seas. 
It  is  a  flat  country,  often  marshy  toward 
the  coast,  and  in  some  places  is  protected 
by  dykes.  It  has  no  rivers  of  any  size, 
though  small  streams  are  numerous. 

Climate.     The  climate  of  Denmark 
is  temperate  and  healthy.     The  winters 
are  severe,  the  channels  being  occasionally  frozen. 

Productions.     The  chief  sources  of  national  wealth  are 


Thorwaldsen  Museum,  Copenhagen. 

found  in  the  rich  pastures  and  in  the  fisheries.  Turf  is 
used  for  fuel. 

Inhabitants.  The  people  belong  to  the  Scandinavian 
family  of  nations,  and  number  considerably  over  two  mil- 
lions. 

Education.  Education  is  general,  and  there  are  pub- 
lic, primary,  and  elementary  schools. 

Industries.  The  occupations  of  the  people  are  chiefly 
incident  to  the  soil,  the  herding  of  cattle,  and  the  making 

1  Denmark,  Dane-March,  the  march  or  frontier  of  the  Danes. 


96 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


of  butter  and  cheese.  The  Danes  are  also  good  sailors,  and 
have  always  been  noted  for  their  love  of  the  sea. 

Government.  The  government  is  a  constitutional 
monarchy. 

Towns.  Copenhagen'  is  the  capital.  It  has  extensive 
docks  and  great  trade.  It  is  strongly  fortified.  One  third 
of  the  people  live  in  towns. 

Foreign  Possessions.  Denmark,  besides  Iceland  and 
the  Faroe  Islands,  has  some  settlements  on  the  west  coast 
of  Greenland;  and  the  islands  of  Santa  Cruz,  St.  Thomas, 
and  St.  John,  in  the-West  Indies. 

QUESTIONS  ON  DENMARK. 
Locate  Denmark.     From  what  is  the  name  derived?     Describe  the 
climate.    What  is  the  chief  source  of  the  wealth  of  the  people?    What 
is  said  of  the  public  school  system?     What  is  the  capital? 

ICELAND. 

Iceland  is  the  second  largest  island  in  Europe,  and  has 
an  area  of  about  40,000  square  miles.  Its  northern  coast 
just  touches  the  borders  of  the  frigid  zone.  The  climate  is 
cold  and  the  surface  barren,  and  there  are  a  number  of  vol- 
canos. 

Natural  Features.  Its  greatest  natural  feature,  how- 
ever, is  its  boiling  springs.  The  largest  of  them,  called  the 
Great  Geyser,  throws  up  a  column  of  water  to  the  height  of 
from  50  to  150  feet. 

Iceland  has  about  72,000  inhabitants. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ICELAND. 

Locate  Iceland.  Describe  its  climate.  What  is  said  of  its  natural 
features?     How  many  inhabitants  has  Iceland? 

THE  BALKAN  STATES. 

These  minor  states  include  Bulgaria,  Eastern  Roumelia, 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Montenegro,  Servia,  and  Rouma- 
nia.  The  Balkan  peninsula  extends  from  the  Adriatic  to 
the  Black  Sea,  and  has  for  several  centuries  been  subject 
to  the  Turks,  who  are  gradually  losing  their  power. 

BULGARIA. 

Bulgaria,  a  principality  of  southeastern  Europe,  incor- 
porated with  which  is  Eastern  Roumelia,  is  nominally  a  part 
of  European  Turkey.  It  is  bordered  on  the  east  by  the  Black 
Sea,  and  ou  the  north  by  the  Danube.  Servia  lies  to  the 
east,  and  the  Turkish  province  of  Adrianople  to  the  south. 

Bulgaria  has  an  area  of  24,000  square  miles,  and  a  popu- 
lation of  three  and  one  half  millions. 

The  Bulgarian  people  are  of  Finnish  origin,  but  are  now 
largely  blended  with  the  Slavs,  and  speak  the  Servian  lan- 
guage.    Nearly  all  are  members  of  the  Greek  church. 

The  chief  towns  are  Sofia,  the  capital,  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Balkans,  and  Varna,  a  fortified  port  on  the 
Black  Sea. 

Much  grain  is  exported.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  exten- 
sively reared. 

1  Copenhagen,  "  merchants'  haven."  The  harbor  is  formed  by  the 
channel  between  Copenhagen  proper  and  Christ.ianshaven. 


EASTERN   ROUMELIA. 
Eastern  Roumelia  has  an  area  of  13,500  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  one  million. 
The  soil  is,  in  parts,  extremely  fertile. 

QUESTIONS  ON  BULGARIA  AND  EASTERN  ROUMELIA. 
Locate  Bulgaria.     Tell  what  you  can  about  the  Bulgarian  people. 
What  are  the  chief  towns?     Locate  Eastern  Roumelia. 

BOSNIA    AND    HERZEGOVINA. 

Before  the  Russo-Tnrkish  war  of  1878,  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina,  in  the  northwest  of  the  Balkan  peninsula, 
formed  part  of  the  Turkish  dominions,  but  they  are  now 
integral  parts  of  the  Austro- Hungarian  Empire. 

MONTENEGRO. 

Montenegro,  a  small,  independent  principality  in  the 
northwest  of  Turkey  Proper,  has  been  independent  since 
the  seventeenth  century.  It  is  noted  for  the  great  fearless- 
ness and  energy  of  its  inhabitants.  It  has  an  area  of  3,030 
square  miles,  and  a  mixed  population  of  about  220, 000. 
The  capital  is  Ce'tinje. 

SERVIA. 

Servia  is  an  independent  kingdom  lying  to  the  south 
of  Hungary.  It  has  an  area  of  18,800  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  about  two  and  a  quarter  millions,  principally 
Slavs.  The  country  is  well  watered  by  numerous  tributaries 
of  the  Danube,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  Wheat,  tobacco,  silk, 
wine,  and  timber  are  exported,  and  its  mineral  products  are 
numerous.     The  climate  is  extremely  variable. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  king. 

Belgrade,  the  capital,  is  a  strong  fortified  town,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Save  and  the  Danube. 

QUESTIONS  ON  SERVIA. 
Locate  Servia.     What   is  its  capital?     What  are  the  products   of 
Servia  J 

R0UMANIA. 

Roumania  was  proclaimed  a  kingdom  in  1881.  It  was 
formed  in  1861  by  the  union  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
two  provinces  lying  between  the  Carpathians  and  the  Dan- 
ube. It  has  an  area  of  48,000  square  miles.  The  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  5,800,000.  Roumania  received  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  peopled  by  the  descendants  of  the 
old  Roman  colonists  and  the  native  Dacians.  The  climate 
is  subject  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  The  mountainous 
western  part  is  well  wooded,  and  the  extensive  plains  are 
well  suited  to  pasturage  and  agriculture,  which  engage  the 
people.     Minerals  are  abundant,  but  are  not  worked. 

Education  is  by  law  free  and  compulsory,  but  only  three 
per  cent  of  the  population  attend  school.  The  people  be- 
long principally  to  the  Greek  Church. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

The  chief  towns  are  Bukharest,  the  capital,  and  seat  of 
government,  with  some    important    manufactures;    .Tassy, 

and  Galatz. 

QUESTIONS  ON   ROUMANIA. 

Locate  Boumanla  !     What  is  said  of  the  government?     When  did  it 

become  a  kingdom?     What  are  its  chief  towns? 


Italy. 


97 


ITALY. 

Italy1  is  a  large  country  of  southern 
Europe.  The  greater  portion  of  it  forms 
a  peninsula  which  advances  far  into  the 
Mediterranean . 

Boundaries.  Italy  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Austria  and  Switzerland;  on  the  northwest 
by  France;  on  the  southwest  and  south  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea;  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  In  shape,  Italy  is  likened  to  a 
boot,  the  two  smaller  peninsulas  into  which  it 
divides  in  the  south  forming  respectively  the  toe 
and  the  heel. 

Extent.  Italy  has  an  area  of  114,000  square  miles.  The  greatest 
iength,  from  northwest  to  southeast,  is  about  700  miles ;  and  the  great- 
est breadth,  350  miles. 

Coasts.  The  coast  line  of  Italy  is  very  extensive,  and  includes  a 
great  number  of  good  harbors.  The  total  length  of  coast  line  is  about 
4,000  miles.  Several  parts  of  the  coast,  such  as  the  Bay  of  Naples 
and  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  are  famous  for  their  scenery. 

,  Islands.     The  three  lar- 

. „     i  gest  islands  are  Sicily,  Sar- 

dinia, and  Corsica,  the  last 
of  which  belongs,  politically, 
to  France. 

Sicily,  the  largest  island  in 
the  Mediterranean,  is  about 
180  miles  long  and  120  miles 
broad.  Its  surface  is  uneven. 
The  principal  mountain  range 
runs  across  the  northern  part 
of  the  island.  The  famous 
volcano,  Mount  Etna,  rises  to 
a  height  of  10,874  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  climate  is  warm  and  delightful.  Sicily  has  a  popula- 
tion of  about  three  and  one  half  millions. 

Sardinia  is  the  second  largest  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.     It 
is  extremely  fertile,  and   its  valleys  are  well  watered   by  numerous 
streams.     The  population  is  about 
750,000. 

Malta  has  a  population  of  about 
168,000,  and  belongs  to  England. 

The  island  of  Capri  is  famous  as 
being  the  place  where  the  Roman 
emperor  Tiberius  passed  the  last 
ten  years  of  his  life,  and  also  as 
being  the  favorite  retreat  of  Augus- 
tus; Elba,  as  the  place  of  Napo- 
leon's exile;  and  Caprera,  as  the 
home  of  Garibaldi,  the  liberator  of 
Italy. 

Mountains.  A  large  portion 
of  Italy  is  mountainous.  The  prin- 
cipal mountains  are  the  Alps  and 
the  Apennines. 

VokanOS.  Mount  Vesuvius, 
3,932  feet  high,  is  the  only  active 
volcano  on  the  mainland  of  Europe, 
and  is  on  the  west  side  of  Italy,  near 
the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Naples. 
In  the  first  known  eruption  of  Vesuvius  (A.  D.  69),  the  cities  of  Her- 
eulaneum  and  Pompeii  were  so  completely  covered  by  lava  and  ashes, 
that  their  very  sites  long  remained  unknown. 


Rome. 


Naples.     Mount  Vesuvius  in  the  distance. 


1  Italy,  the  country  of  the  Itali,  an  ancient  tribe  who  occupied  the 
southern  parts  of  the  peninsula. 


Mount  Etna  is  the  largest  and  loftiest  volcano  in  Europe,  and,  since 
the  year  476,  it  has  been  in  eruption  about  sixty  times.  In  the  earth- 
quake of  1783,  over  300  towns  and  villages  were  destroyed,  and  in  1857 
over  10,000  persons  perished. 

Plains.  The  laigest  plain  in  Italy  is  the  Plain  of  Lombardy,  one 
of  the  most  fertile  regions  of  Europe. 

Rivers.  With  a  few  exceptions,  the  rivers  of  Italy  are  of  but 
little  importance,  though  of  great  historical  fame.  In  Italy,  as  in 
Greece  and  other  lands,  many  localities,  which,  in  themselves,  claim 
little  regard,  command  interest  from  their  associations.  The  Po  and 
the  Tiber  are  known  in  song,  story,  and  history. 

Lakes.  Italy  has  a  number  of  large  and  beautiful  lakes.  Lake 
Maggiore  and  Lake  Como  are  two  of  the  most  picturesque  and  beau- 
tiful lakes  in  the  world. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Italy  is  very  warm,  as  is  the 
case  with  all  the  countries  that  border  upon  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  It  is  also,  for  the  most  part,  dry  and  healthy. 
In  some  parts,  however,  the  air  is  very  unhealthy,  espe- 
cially at  some  seasons  of  the  year.  The  malaria  from  the 
marshes,  and  the  sirocco,  a  hot,  stifling  wind  from  Africa, 
are  the  great  drawbacks 
to  the  climate  of  Italy. 
The  western  coast  of 
America  has  sometimes 
been  called  the  "Italy 
of  America,"  but  its  cli- 
mate, in  many  respects, 
is  even  superior  to  that 
of  Italy. 

Productions.     The 

vegetation  of  Italy  is 
rich  and  luxuriant.  The 
mineral  produce  is  considerable.  The  finest  marble  in  the 
world  is  found  near  Carrara,  in  the  Apennines.  The  fishe- 
ries around  the  coast  are  valuable. 

Inhabitants.     Italy  contains  upwards  of  thirty  million 

people.  Although  the  inhabi- 
tants are  a  distinct  race,  yet 
they  are  descended  from  widely 
different  races.  The  Italian 
language  is  derived  from  the 
Latin.  Of  the  various  dia- 
lects, the  Tuscan  only  is  pure. 
Industries.  Wheat, maize, 
olive  oil,  silks,  and  wines  are 
among  the  productions  of  Ital- 
ian industry.  The  silks  and 
velvets  of  Turin  and  Genoa 
rival  those  of  France. 

Seaports.  The  six  great 
ports  of  Italy  are  Genoa,  Leg- 
horn, Naples,  Messina,  Paler- 
mo, and  Venice. 

Internal  Communica- 
tion. There  are  good  roads 
in  Lombardy  and  Sardinia,  but  in  other  parts  they  are  de- 
fective. There  are  about  8,000  miles  of  railway  open  for 
traffic  in  the  kingdom.  The  completion  of  the  great  Alpine 
tunnels  has  facilitated  outside  communication. 


Genoa. 


98 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Government.  The  kingdom  of  Italy  is  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  the  legislative  power  resting  in  the  king 
and  a  Parliament  of  two  Chambers. 

Education.  Until  recent  years  the  lower  classes  of  Italy 
were  totally  illiterate,  and  even  now  the  great  majority  are 
unable  to  read  and  write.  Elementary  education,  however, 
is  being  extended,  and  public  schools  are  now  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom.  Higher  education  is  well  provided 
for,  there  being,  up  to  1893,  when  13  of  them  were  sup- 
pressed, no  less  than  21  universities. 

Divisions.  The  kingdom  of  Italy  is  divided  into  sixty- 
nine  provinces,  which  are  named  after  the  chief  town  in 

each. 

Cities.  Milan,  in  the  center  of  the  Lombard  plain,  and  the  former 
capital  of  Austrian  Italy,  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  cathedral  and  its 
marble  palaces. 

Genoa,  the  chief  commercial  city  of  Italy,  and  in  former  times  the 
rival  of  Venice  in  commerce  and  dominion,  lies  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast,  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  called  by 
its  name. 

Venice  stands  on  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  in  the  midst  of  lagoons. 
It  formerly  commanded  the  commerce  of  the  neighboring  waters. 
Canals  divide  its  different  quarters,  but  the  city  itself  is  accessible  by 
the  railway,  which,  crossing  the  lagoons,  connects  it  with  Milan  and 
other  places  in  northern  Italy,  and  with  Florence  and  Rome  to  the 
south.  Venice  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  cities  in  the  world.  It 
was  formerly  called  the  "  Queen  of  the  Adriatic." 

Rome,  the  "Eternal  City,"  the  ancient  "mistress  of  the  world," 
and,  since  1870,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  stands  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tiber,  18  miles  above  its  entrance  into  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  The  larger  portion  of  the  city  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river. 
The  Cathedral  of  St.  Peter  and  the  Vatican  Palace  are  on  the  right 
bank. 

Florence,  the  capital  of  Tuscany,  is  the  intellectual  capital  of  Italy. 
Florence,  "The  Beautiful,"  perhaps  the  most  enchanting  of  Italian 
cities,  is  situated  amidst  most  charming  scenery  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Arno,  and  is  famous  for  its  collection  of  works  of  art,  and  as  the 
birthplace  and  residence  of  many  great  men,  among  them  Dante, 
Michael  Angelo,  Amerigo  Vespucci,  Galileo,  and  Savonarola. 

Foreign  Possessions.  Italy  has  some  colonies  and 
dependencies  on  the  eastern  side  of  Africa.  Abyssinia  and 
Bhoa  are  virtually  Italian  protectorates. 


HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

The  history  of  Italy  was  soon  ab- 
sorbed into  that  of  Rome,  founded 
753  B.  C.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it 
was  desolated  by  intestine  wars 
and  the  interference  of  the  German 
emperors.  The  country  has  been 
divided  among  Spain,  France,  and 
Germany  several  times.  Spain  pre- 
dominated in  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
enteenth centuries,  but  gave  way  to 
Austria  in  the  eighteenth.  Napo- 
leon changed  the  government,  but 
Austrian  rule  was  re-established  in 
1814.  Revolts  followed,  and  the 
present  kingdom  was  established 
in  1870. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ITALY. 

Locate  Italy.  Why  is  Italy  li- 
kened to  a  boot?  What  is  said  of 
the  islands  near  Italy?  Tell  what 
you  can  about  Sicily.     For  what  is' 


&F. 


&  ?'    ^I^-IT  /  **•' 


the  island  of  Capri  noted?  For  what  is  the  island  of  Elba  noted?  For 
what  is  Mount  Etna  noted?  Name  several  of  the  principal  rivers  of 
Italy.  Describe  the  climate.  Why  has  the  western  coast  of  America 
been  called  the  "Italy  of  America"?  From  whence  do  we  get  the 
finest  marble?  What  are  the  industries  of  the  people?  What  can  you 
tell  about  the  government  and  the  education  of  the  people?  Give  somt 
of  the  important  facts  about  the  leading  cities.  Tell  what  you  can 
about  Rome.  For  what  is  Florence  noted?  Have  you  read  about  the 
great  artists  and  the  men  mentioned  in  the  account  of  Florence? 

GREECE. 

Greece1  is  a  small  country  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  consists  of  three 
well-marked  divisions,  Northern  Greece, 
Southern  Greece  or  the  Morea,  and  the 
adjacent  islands,  or  Insular  Greece. 

Boundaries.  Greece  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Turkey,  on  the  west  and  south  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  and  on  the  east  by  the  ^Egean  Sea. 
Extent.  The  total  area  of  the  kingdom  is 
nearly  25,000  square  miles.  The  greatest  length, 
from  north  to  south,  is  205  miles;  the  greatest 
breadth,  from  east  to  west,  is  100  miles. 
Coasts.  The  mainland  of  Greece  has  the  sea  on  three  sides,  and 
its  coasts  are  indented  by  a  vast  number  of  inlets.  It  has  been  re- 
marked that  Greece  is  distinguished  among  other  countries  by  the  same 
character  that  distinguishes  Europe  itself  from  the  other  continents, — 
that  is,  the  great  range  of  coast  compared  with  the  extent  of  surface. 
Islands.  A  large  portion  of  Greece  consists  of  islands.  The 
Ionian  Islands  are  situated  to  the  west  and  south  of  Greece.  They 
enjoy  a  delightful  climate,  and  have  a  soil  that  is  fertile  and  productive. 
Mountains.  Every  part  of  Greece  is  mountainous.  The  highest 
elevations  reach  upwards  of  8,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Mount 
St.  Elias,  in  the  south  of  the  Morea,  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated. 
The  mountains  known  to  the  ancients  by  the  names  of  ffita,  Parnassus, 
Helicon,  and  Cithceron,  with  others  that  are  famous  in  classic  history, 
are  within  the  limits  of  Northern  Greece.  In  Thessaly,  are  Mount 
Ossa,  6,400  feet,  and  Mount  Pelion,  5,300  feet  high.  Between  Mount 
Etna  and  the  sea  lies  the  famous  Pass  of  Thermopylae. 

Rivers  and  Lakes.  Greece  has  no  rivers  of  any  magnitude. 
The  largest  in  Northern  Greece  is  the  Salembria,  in  Thessaly.  There 
are  numerous  lakes,  but  none  of  any  considerable  size  or  importance. 

_., „_     -    _    ;-,-.  Climate.      Greece   has   a 

warm  and  delightful  climate, 

^_  snow   seldom    lying    on    the 

lowlands.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  at  Athens  is  about 
60  degrees,  but  the  summers 
are  extremely  hot. 

Productions.  The  vine, 
olive,  orange,  lemon,  citron, 
fig,  and  mulberry  are  among 
the  fruits.  The  cotton  plant 
grows  wild.  The  honey  of 
Attica  still  preserves  its  an- 
cient fame. 


;5ffw_y  tE3 


Modern  Athens. 


1  Greece,  or  Groecia,  so  called  by 
the  Romans.  The  old  Greek  name, 
"Hellas,"  was  not  exclusively  ap- 
plied to  Greece  proper,  but  was 
also  applied  to  other  countries  in- 
habited by  the  Greeks,  or  Hellenes. 


Greece.  —  Turkey  in  Europe. 


99 


Salamis. 

Inhabitants.  Greece  has  a  population  of  about  two 
and  one  quarter  millions.  The  Greeks  are  a  quick,  intel- 
ligent, and  enterprising  people.  Three  quarters  of  them 
are  probably  descended  from  the  old  Greeks,  and  their  lan- 
guage closely  resembles  the  ancient  Greek  tongue. 

Education  and  Religion.  Education  is  compulsory, 
but  the  law  is  very  rarely  enforced  in  country  districts. 
About  one  half  of  the  men  and  three  quarters  of  the  women 
can  neither  read  nor  write.  The  Greek  Church  represents 
the  established  form  of  religion. 

Industries.  The  industries  are  chiefly  pastoral,  but 
there  is  considerable  trade.  Currants  and  other  fruits, 
olive  oil,  honey,  tobacco,  and  cotton  are  the  principal  pro- 
ducts of  the  country.  Only  one  sixth  of  the  land  is  under 
cultivation. 

Internal  Communication.    There  are  about  600  miles 

of  railway  in  Greece,  but  most  of  the  trade  is  carried  on 
by  sea.  A  ship-canal  across  the  isthmus  of  Corinth  was 
opened  in  August,  1893. 

Government.  The  kingdom  of  Greece  is  a  limited  and 
hereditary  monarchy. 

Cities.  Athens  is  the  capital  of 
modern  Greece.  It  is  on  the  west-  ™ 
em  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Attica,  fg^ 
and  about  five  miles  distant  from 
the  harbor  of  the  Pira?us,  which  is 
its  port.  It  is  a  city  of  moderate 
size,  but  greatly  surpasses,  in  this 
respect,  any  other  place  in  Greece. 
The  sites  of  Marathon  and  Salamis 
are  not  far  distant  from  the  capital. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

The  ancient  Greeks,  or  Hellenes,  occu- 
pying the  many  peninsulas  and  islands  of 
their  coasts,  were  naturally  led  to  seek 
the  neighboring  coasts  of  Phoenicia  and 
Egypt.  Contact  with  these  ancient,  civ- 
ilizations made  the  Greeks  the  earliest 
civilized  people  in  Europe.  The  Persians 
several  times  waged  war  against  Greece. 
Alexander  the  Great,  in  the  third  century 


B.  0.,  conquered  Persia  and  Egypt,  and  gained  control  of  all  western 
Asia.  Alter  Alexander's  death  this  great  empire  fell  to  pieces,  and 
Greece,  conquered  by  Rome,  became  a  Roman  province  in  the  second 
century  B.  C.  It  continued  under  the  rale  of  the  Byzantine  Empire 
until  the  overthrow  of  Constantinople,  when  it  passed  under  the  Mos- 
lem yoke.  The  Venetians  took  possession  of  Athens  in  1684,  but  were 
forced  to  withdraw  in  1718.  In  1821  the  Greeks  rebelled,  and  gained 
their  independence,  aided  by  England,  France,  and  Russia. 

QUESTIONS  ON  GREECE. 

Locate  Greece.  What  are  its  natural  features?  Tell  what  you 
can  about  the  Pass  of  Thermopylae.  Describe  the  climate  of  Greece. 
Name  some  of  the  productions  of  Greece.  What  is  said  about  its 
honey?  What  about  its  railroads?  What  is  the  government?  Give 
some  facts  about  Athens.  How  did  the  Greeks  first  attain  civilization? 
How  were  they  brought  in  contact  with  ancient  civilizations?  What 
great  soldier  brought  Egypt  and  Persia  under  the  control  of  Greece? 
What  other  powers  subsequently  ruled  Greece? 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Turkey  is  a  large  country  in  south- 
eastern Europe,  and  was  formerly  much 
more  extensive  than  at  present.  Before 
1878  it  included  Roumania  to  the  north, 
and  Servia  to  the  south,  of  the  Danube. 
The  present  kingdom  of  Greece  was  a 
province  of  the  Turkish  Empire  from 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
until  1830. 

Extent.  The  area  of  European  Turkey  is 
estimated  at  over  125,000  square  miles,  but  only 
half  of  this  area  is  directly  under  Turkish  rule. 
Coasts.  The  total  length  of  the  coast  line  is  about  1,500  miles. 
The  Strait  of  Constantinople,  leading  from  the  Sea  of  Marmora  to  the 
Black  Sea;  the  Dardanelles,  connecting  the  ^Egean  Sea  with  the  Sea 
of  Marmora;  and  the  Strait  of  Otranto,  joining  the  Ionian  and  the 
Adriatic  seas, — are  special  features. 

Islands.  The  island  of  Crete,  or  Candia,  has  upwards  of  200,000 
inhabitants,  nearly  all  Greeks.  It  has  an  area  of  about  3,000  square 
miles,  and  has  a  fertile  soil,  producing  olive  oil,  wine,  oranges,  etc. 

Mountains.  The  country,  in  general,  is  mountainous,  though 
there  are  some  level  districts.     The  chief  mountains  are  the  Balkans, 


Constantinople. 


100 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


the  Dinaric  Alps,  and  the  Pindus  Range.  The  highest  point  is  in  the 
Balkans,  and  is  upwards  of  10,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Rivert.  The  principal  river  is  the  Danube,  flowing  into  the  Black 
Sea;  and  the  Alaritza,  a  navigable  stream. 

Climate.  Most  parts  of  Turkey  have  a  warm  and  de- 
lightful climate.  To  the  north  of  the  Balkans,  the  winters, 
however,  are  severe. 

Productions.  The  fig,  olive,  and  mulberry  are  abun- 
dant, as  well  as  the  orange.  Corn  is  grown  abundantly  in 
the  Danubian  provinces.  Iron  and  other  minerals  abound 
in  the  rich  tracts  adjoining  the  Balkan  Mountains. 

Divisions.  By  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878),  Bulgaria  and  Eastern 
Roumelia  were  formed  into  self-governing  tributary  principalities,  and 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  handed  over  to  Austria  for  an  indefinite 
period.  Servia  and  Montenegro  were  acknowledged  as  independent 
states. 

European  Turkey  thus  includes  Turkey  Proper,  comprising  the 
provinces  still  under  the  direction  of  the  Porte;  the  self-governing 
principality  of  Bulgaria;  and  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  occupied  and 
administered  by  Austria  as  a  portion  of  the  empire. 

TURKEY  PROPER. 

Turkey  Proper  has  an  area  of  66,500  square  miles,  and 
a  population  of  about  5,000,000,  700,000  of  whom  are  Turks. 

Industries.  Turkey  is  a  badly  governed  country,  and 
the  pursuits  of  industry  are  at  a  low  ebb.  Its  great  natural 
resources  in  soil,  climate,  and  vegetation  are  neglected.  In 
the  northern  districts  large  numbers  of  oxen  and  sheep  are 
reared.  In  the  towns,  morocco  leather  is  prepared.  In 
the  mountain  districts  the  people  are  chiefly  shepherds. 

Commerce.  The  amount  of  foreign  trade  is  consider- 
able. The  chief  ports  are  Constantinople,  Salonica,  Enos, 
and  Gallipoli. 

Government.  The  government  of  Turkey  is  a  despotic 
monarchy,  in  which  the  Sultan  exercises  an  authority  that 
is  practically  absolute. 

Education  and  Religion.  Public  education  has  not 
made  much  progress,  and  the  limited  instruction  given  in 
the  public  schools  and  colleges  is  based  on  the  Koran.    The 


Turks  themselves  are  Mohammedans,  but  the  rest  of  the 
population  belong  principally  to  the  Greek  Church. 

Cities.  Constantinople  is  the  capital  of  the  Turkish 
Empire.  It  stands  at  the  southern  entrance  of  the  Strait  of 
Constantinople.  Adrianople,  the  second  city  of  Turkey,  is 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Maritza,  to  the  northwest  of  the 
capital.  Salonica  is  at  the  head  of  a  gulf  of  the  same  name, 
in  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  Archipelago. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

A  small  tribe  when  they  entered  Europe,  the  Turks  gradually  grew 
in  numbers  and  extended  their  dominions,  until  they  put  an  end  to  the 
Eastern  Roman  Empire.  Their  failure  to  capture  Vienna  was  a  de- 
cided check  to  their  progress  in  Europe;  and  since  their  first  clash 
with  the  Russians  in  1570,  they  have  been  gradually  losing  power  and 
territory. 

QUESTIONS  ON  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Tell  what  you  can  about  Turkey  in  Europe.  Name  its  principal 
natural  features.  What  notable  island  is  in  Turkey  in  Europe  f  What 
are  the  principal  mountains?  What  is  the  principal  liver?  Tell  what 
you  can  about  the  productions.  What  are  the  products  of  Turkey 
Proper?  What  are  the  chief  ports  of  Turkey?  What  is  the  govern- 
ment of  Turkey?  What  .;  s.id  about  public  education?  What  is  the 
capital  of  the  Turkish  Empire? 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Austria-Hungary  is  the  great  dual 
empire  of  central  Europe,  and  is,  next 
to  Russia,  the  largest  state  in  Europe. 

Boundaries.  Austria-Hungary  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Germany;  on  the  east  by  Ki;s- 
sia  and  Roumania;  on  the  south  by  Roumania, 
Servia,  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  Italy;  on  the 
west  by  Switzerland  and  Bavaria. 

Extent.      The  area  of  Austria1  is  110,000 
square  miles,   and  that  of   Hungary,  125,000 
square  miles.     The  greatest  length,  from  cast 
to  west,  is  about  800  miles,  and  the  greatest 
breadth,  from  north  to  south,  is  nearly  500  miles. 

Coasts.  The  only  sea-coast  which  belongs  to  Austria  is  at  the  head 
and  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic. 

Mountains.  The  mountains  include 
the  Bohemian  Mountains,  the  Austrian 
Alps,  and  the  Carpathians. 

Rivers.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Danube  and  the  Dniester,  flowing  into  the 
Black  Sea;  the  Etschand  Sdobba,  flowing 
into  the  Adriatic;  the  Oder  and  the  Vis- 
tula, flowing  into  the  Baltic  Sea;  and  the 
Elbe,  flowing  into  the  North  Sea.  The 
Danube  is  the  great  river  of  Austria.  It 
flows  through  the  heart  of  the  empire, 
from  west  to  east. 

Climate.  The  climate,  on  the 
whole,  is  dry,  healthy,  and  tempe- 
rate. 

Productions.   The  productions 

are  varied.  Almost  every  plant  indi- 
genous to  Europe  is  found  in  Hun- 


Budapest, 


'Austria,  German,  Oesteireich,  eastern 
kingdom.  So  called  because  it  formed 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  dominions  of 
Charlemagne. 


A  ustria- Hungary. 


101 


Vienna. 

gary  alone,  and  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  two  countries  is 
very  great.  The  country  yields  annually  about  500,000,000 
gallons  of  wine.  The  Adriatic  fig  grows  on  the  shores  of 
the  Adriatic;  the  olive  and  the  mulberry  are  also  found 
there. 

Inhabitants.  The  empire  has  nearly  forty-two  mil- 
lion inhabitants.  About  twenty-four  millions  inhabit  the 
Austrian  division  of  the  empire,  but  less  than  ten  millions 
of  them  are  Germans.  Five  and  one  half  million  Austrian 
subjects  are  Poles.  The  Slavs,  Roumanians,  Magyars,  and 
others  represent  other  subjects  of  the  empire.'  Jews  are 
scattered  throughout  the  empire. 

Industries.  There  are  considerable  manufactures,  but 
farming  is  followed  by  a  large  number  of  the  people.  Rye 
is  the  staple  crop;  corn,  barley,  and  oats  are  also  grown. 
Much  wine  is  produced.  Vast  num- 
bers of  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared. 
Bohemia  is  celebrated  for  its*  glass- 
works and  a  number  of  other  impor- 
tant manufactures. 

Commerce.  The  foreign  com- 
merce is  limited,  on  account  of  the 
small  sea-coast.  The  ports  of  Trieste 
and  Fiume  are  the  chief  seats  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  the  empire. 

Internal  Communication.    The 

highways  are  excellent,  and  there  are 
18,000  miles  of  railroads,  as  well  as  a 
well-developed  telegraphic  and  postal 
service. 

Government.  The  government 
is  a  hereditary  dual  monarchy,  the 
emperor  of  Austria  being  also  king  of 
Hungary.  The  empire,  as  a  whole, 
has  no  nationality.  The  ruling  power 
is  German  in  the  western  provinces, 
and  Hungarian  in  the  eastern  divis- 
ion, but  the  majority  of  the  people 
differ  in  race,  language,  habits,  and 
ideas    from   the    dominant    people    in 


both  divisions  of  the  country.  For  this  reason  the  govern- 
ment maintains  a  powerful  army.  Military  service  is  com- 
pulsory. 

Education.  Public  education  was  rather  neglected  un- 
til recently.  The  Slavonic  provinces  are  particularly  igno- 
rant. In  the  Germanic  portions  of  the  empire,  every  child 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  twelve  is  compelled  to  attend 
school.  There  are  eleven  universities.  The  one  at  Vienna 
has  over  5,000  students,  and  the  one  at  Budapest  has  3,600 
students. 

Cities.  Vienna  is  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and  stands  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Danube.     It  is  a  great  center  of  trade. 

Prague,  the  capital  of  Bohemia,  is  next  in  size  to  Vienna,  and  is  a 
place  of  much  note  in  history. 

Trieste,  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  is  the  principal  sea- 
port of  Austria. 

Budapest,  the  chief  city  of  Hungary,  stands  on  opposite  banks  of 
the  Danube. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

Austria  formed  a  part  of  the  Roman  Empire.  It  was  overrun  by 
the  Huns  and  other  barbarians,  who  were  driven  out  by  Charlemagne. 
The  greatness  of  Austria  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  Hapsburg 
dynasty,  which  continues  to  this  day.  Hungary  was  also  subject  to 
the  Roman  yoke,  and  was  retained  by  them  till  the  third  century, 
when  it  was  seized  by  the  Goths.  The  Goths  were  expelled  by  the 
Huns,  who  overran  the  country.  The  Avars  held  the  country  until 
their  destruction  by  Charlemagne.  Later,  Scythians  and  Magyars  set- 
tled in  the  country. 

QUESTIONS  ON  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

State  several  important  facts  about  the  size  and  countries  of  Austria- 
Hungary.  Why  is  it  called  the  Eastern  Kingdom?  Name  the  principal 
rivers.  What  are  the  principal  productions?  Tell  what  you  can  about 
the  Adriatic  fig.  What  are  the  industries  of  the  people?  For  what  is 
Bohemia  noted?  What  is  said  about  the  railroads  and  telegraph  ser- 
vice? Tell  what  you  can  about  the  education  of  the  people.  What  is 
there  peculiar  about  Budapest?     What  is  the  capital  of  Bohemia? 


Prague. 


102 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


RUSSIA. 

Russia  is  a  country  of  eastern  Europe. 
It  is  of  vast  extent,  embracing  more  than 
half  of  the  continent. 

Boundaries.  Russia  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  on  the  west  by  the 
Baltic  Sea,  Prussia,  and  Austria;  on  the  south 
by  Roumania,  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  and 
Caucasia;  on  the  east  by  Siberia  and  Russian 
Central  Asia. 

Extent.  The  Russian  Empire  has  never 
been  actually  surveyed,  but  its  area  is  officially 
estimated  at  8,644,100  square  miles,  of  which  about  a  quarter  is  in 
Europe. 

Coasts.  Russia  possesses  a  coast  line  upon  four  inland  seas,  the 
Baltic,  the  Black,  the  Caspian,  and  the  White  seas. 

Islands.  Of  the  islands,  Spitzbergen  ( ' '  peaked  mountain  ' ' )  and 
Nova  Zembla  ("  new  land  ")  are  of  interest  on  account  of  being  con- 
nected with  expeditions  to  the  North  Pole.  None  of  the  islands  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean  are  permanently  inhabited,  but  are  valuable  as  hunting 
and  fishing  stations. 

Surface.  Russia  has  a  number  of  immense  and  nearly  level  plains, 
which  slope  toward  the  Baltic,  Black,  Caspian,  and  White  seas.  The 
most  perfectly  level  of  these  plains  are  in  the  southeast,  and  are  called 
steppes.  The  steppe  is  an  open  plain,  without  trees.  On  them  the 
inhabitants  pasture  immense  herds  of  horses  and  cattle.  Salt-water 
lakes  are  frequently  found  in  the  lower  steppe-land. 

Mountains.  The  only  mountains  belonging  to  European  Russia 
are  the  Urals,  on  the  east ;  the  Caucasus,  on  the  southern  border  line ; 
and  the  Valdai  Hills,  in  the  center.  The  Urals  extend  for  1,200  miles. 
The  chain  of  the  Caucasus  is  700  miles  long,  and  have  an  average 
elevation  of  from  eight  thousand  to  nine  thousand  feet,  culminating 
in  Mount  Elbruz,  18,571  feet  high.  The  highest  of  the  Valdai  Hills 
does  not  exceed  1,000  feet. 

Rivers.      The  following  are  the  principal  rivers: — 
Flowing  into  the  Baltic  Sea:  The  Neva,  Southern  Dwina,  Niemen, 
and  Vistula. 

Flowing  into  the  Black  Sea:  The  Dniester,  Dnieper,  and  Kuban. 
Flowing  into  the  Sea  of  Azof:  The  Don. 
Flowing  into  the  Caspian  Sea:  The  Volga  and  the  Ural. 
Flowing  into  the  White  Sea:  The  Northern  Dwina  and  the  Onega. 
Flowing  into  the  Arctic  Ocean :  The  Petchora. 

The  Neva,  40  miles  long,  has  St.  Petersburg,  the  capital  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  at  its  mouth,  and  is  the  outlet  for  the  great  lakes. 


A  Russian  Town  near  the  Siberian  Frontier,  on  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway 


It  is  connected  by  canals  with  the  Volga,  and  is  frozen  over  five  months 
of  the  year. 

The  Southern  Dwina  and  the  Niemen  have  each  a  navigable  course 
of  about  500  miles. 

The  Dniester  (700  miles)  and  the  Dnieper  (1,200  miles)  are  navi- 
gable throughout  the  greater  part  of  their  courses. 

The  Don  (1,100  miles  long)  is  navigable  during  only  a  part  of  the 
year. 

The  Volga  (2,200  miles  long)  is  the  longest  river  in  Europe.  It 
rises  in  the  Valdai  Hills,  and  enters  the  Caspian  by  numerous  mouths, 
draining,  with  its  tributaries  (the  Oka,  Kama,  Moskva,  etc.),  nearly  a 
seventh  of  Europe.  During  the  winter  it  is  frozen  over,  but  in  summer 
it  is  extensively  navigated.  The  Volga  is  connected  by  canals  with 
the  Dwina,  Neva,  etc. 

The  Ural,  which  forms  one  of  the  natural  boundaries  "between 
Europe  and  Asia,  has  a  course  of  1,150  miles,  and  is  navigable  for 
small  vessels. 

The  Petchora  (900  miles),  which  rises  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  is  the 
only  large  European  river  that  falls  directly  into  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  Northern  Dwina  has  a  navigable  course  of  upwards  of  700 
miles,  and  is  connected  by  canals  with  the  Neva  and  Volga. 

Lakes.  Most  of  the  lakes  are  situated  near  the  Black  Sea.  La- 
doga and  Onega  are  the  two  largest.  Lake  Ladoga,  6,330  square  miles, 
is  the  largest  lake  in  Europe. 

Climate.  Russia  has  a  great  variety  of  climate,  owing 
to  its  extensive  range  of  latitude.  Its  northern  part  is  cold, 
and  toward  the  south  it  becomes  warmer.  The  Russian 
winters  are  very  long  and  severe,  while  the  summers  are 
intensely  hot. 

The  severity  of  the  Russian  winters  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  rivers  are  for  several  months  covered  with  ice  of  great 
thickness.  The  White  Sea  in  the  north  is  always,  and  the  Sea  of  Azof 
in  the  south  occasionally,  frozen  over  in  winter. 

Productions.  The  forests  still  cover  more  than  one 
third  of  Russia.  Timber,  tar,  pitch,  turpentine,  and  potash 
are  some  of  its  valuable  productions.  Its  mines  of  iron 
and  platinum  are  valuable,  while  copper,  salt,  marble,  coal, 
petroleum,  and  gold  are  also  found.  The  reindeer  and  polar 
bear  are  found  in  the  north,  and  the  common  bear  and  wolf 
in  the  forests.  The  beaver,  sable,  fox,  and  ermine  are  also 
caught,  and  seals  are  obtained  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  and 
the  Caspian  Sea.  The  sturgeon  is  found  in  all  the  larger 
rivers,  and  caviare  is  an  important  source  of  revenue. 

Inhabitants.  Russia  is  very  sparsely 
peopled,  considering  its  vast  size,  although 
the  total  population  is  large.  Including 
Finland  and  Poland,  Russia  contains  about 
ninety-six  millions  of  people, — an  average 
of  only  48  to  the  square  mile.  Five  sixths 
of  the  entire  population  belong  to  the  Sla- 
vonic race.  There  are  three  millions  of 
Finns,  Lapps,  and  Samoyedes  in  the  north, 
and  in  the  southeast  about  the  same  num- 
ber of  Tartars.  Jews  are  numerous,  but 
harsh  measures  have  driven  vast  numbers 
of  them  out  of  the  country.  The  majority 
of  the  people  speak  the  Russian  language,  of 
which  there  are  three  principal  dialects,  the 
pure  Russian  being  spoken  only  in  the  cen- 
tral provinces.  The  Polish,  Lettish,  and  the 
Finno-Tartar  languages  are  also  spoken. 


Russia. 


103 


Winter  Palace,  St.  Petersburg. 

Industries.  Russia  is  a  great  corn-growing  country. 
Its  great  plains  are  also  covered  with  crops  of  the  finest 
wheat.  Rye  and  other  grains  are  grown,  and  vast  numbers 
of  cattle  are  reared  on  the  steppes.  Russia  is  not  a  manu- 
facturing country,  although  considerable  skill  has  been  dis- 
played in  metal-working. 

Commerce.  Russia  has  a  great  deal  of  foreign  com- 
merce, exporting  corn,  hemp,  tallow,  hides,  and  bristles; 
timber,  potash,  and  other  products  of  its  vast  forests.  It 
has  also  a  large  number  of  imports.  Much  of  the  inland 
trade  is  carried  on  at  fairs.  At  the  annual  fair  at  Nizhni 
Novgorod,  goods  to  the  value  of  over  forty  million  dollars 
are  sold. 

Ports.  The  chief  ports  are  St.  Petersburg,  Riga,  and 
Revel,  on  the  Baltic;  Archangel,  on  the  White  Sea;  As- 
trakhan, on  the  Volga;   and  Odessa,  on  the  Black  Sea. 

Internal  Communication.  There  are  excellent  high- 
roads, and  inland  water-communication  by  means  of  navi- 
gable rivers  and  canals.  There  are  over  19,000  miles  of 
railway. 

Government.  Russia  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  the  ruler 
bearing  the  title  of  czar,  or  emperor.  Military  service  is 
compulsory,  and  an  immense  standing  army  is  maintained. 

Previous  to  the  year  1861  the  great  mass  of  the  people  were  serfs, 
in  a  social  condition,  but  little  superior  to  absolute  slavery,  and  rated 
as  the  property  of  their  owners,  like  so  many  head  of  cattle.  Serfdom, 
however,  was  abolished  by  the  Emperor  Alexander  II.  (who  was  assas- 
sinated in  St.  Petersburg  on  March  13,  1881),  and  great  improvement 
in  the  general  condition  of  the  Russian  peasantry  has  ensued. 

Education.  Education  is  very  backward,  except  in 
Finland,  where  it  is  almost  universal.  In  Russia  proper, 
only  twenty  per  cent  of  the  recruits  for  the  army  can  read 
and  write. 

Religion.  In  religion,  the  majority  of  the  people  of 
Russia  belong  to  the  Greek  Church.  There  are  eight  mil- 
lion Roman  Catholics,  three  million  Protestants,  three 
million  Jews,  and  two  and  a  half  million  Mohammedans. 

Cities.  St.  Petersburg  is  the  capital  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  and  stands  beside  the  mouth  of  the  river  Neva,  at 


the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  It  has  900,000  inhabi- 
tants in  summer  and  over  one  million  in  winter.  It  is  a 
splendid  city,  of  modern  origin,  having  been  founded  by 
Peter  the  Great  in  1702. 

The  ancient  city  of  Moscow,  in  the  heart  of  Russia,  was 
long  the  capital  of  the  empire.  Moscow  stands  on  the  river 
Moskva. 

Among  other  prominent  cities  are  Warsaw,  Odessa,  and 
Sebastopol. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

The  first  regular  government  in  Russia  was  established  in  802. 
The  ruler  of  Russia  assumed  the  title  of  Czar  about  the  time  that 
Columbus  discovered  America.  Peter  the  Great,  anxious  to  make 
Russia  a  naval  power,  and  having  no  seaport,  conquered  the  eastern 
shores  of  the  Baltic  from  Sweden,  and  established  St.  Petersburg. 
The  north  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  he  conquered  from  Turkey.  In  the 
year  1812,  Napoleon  invaded  Russia,  and,  defeating  the  Russians,  he 
purposed  making  his  winter  quarters  in  Moscow,  but  the  Russians 
burned  the  city.  Napoleon  had  thus  no  shelter  for  his  troops  in  the 
midst  of  the  terrible  Russian  winter,  his  troops  perishing  miserably  in 
their  disastrous  retreat.  Finland  was  formerly  a  part  of  the  Swedish 
monarchy,  and  only  became  attached  to  Russia  in  1809.  Russia,  in 
spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Finns,  is  substituting  the  Russian  language 
for  that  of  the  people.  The  territory  now  bearing  the  name  of  Poland 
has  been  since  1831  a  Russian  province,  but  embraces  only  a  small 
part  of  the  country  formerly  known  by  that  name,  the  other  portions 
having  been  annexed  by  Prussia  and  Austria.  Poland  was  long  a  dis- 
tinct and  powerful  monarchy. 

QUESTIONS  ON   RUSSIA. 

What  is  said  about  the  extent  of  Russia?  Describe  its  islands. 
What  is  said  about  the  serfs  of  Russia?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the 
word  "steppes"?  Describe  the  mountains  of  Russia.  Describe  the 
seas.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  climate.  Give  an  account  of  its 
productions.  Name  some  of  the  animals  of  that  country.  Tell  what 
you  can  about  the  people.  Describe  the  roads,  the  canals,  and  tell 
what  you  can  about  the  railways.  What  is  the  government  of  Russia? 
What  is  the  capital  of  Russia?  Tell  what  you  can  about  Moscow. 
About  what  time  was  the  title  of  czar  assumed  by  the  ruler  of  Russia? 
What  Russian  emperor  founded  St.  Petersburg?  What  was  the  object 
of  the  Russians  in  burning  Moscow?  What  territory  formerly  belong- 
ing to  Sweden  now  forms  a  part  of  the  Russian  Empire?  What  is  the 
name  of  a  once  powerful  monarchy,  part  of  which  now  belongs  to  the 
Russian  Empire? 


Moscow. 


ASIA. 


Asia1  is  the  farthest  east  of  the  three  continents  that  form 
the  Old  World.  It  is  the  largest  of  all  the  great  divisions 
of  the  globe. 


Outline  Map  of  Asia. 

Boundaries.  Asia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean;  on  the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean;  on  the  south 
by  the  Indian  Ocean;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Red  Sea,  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  the  Caspian 
Sea,  the  river  Ural,  and  the  Ural  Mountains.  Asia  is  joined 
to  Africa  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  73  miles  wide,  which  is 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  seas;  and  is  divided 
from  North  America  by  Bering  Strait,  35  miles  in  width. 
Asia  measures  more  than  5,000  miles  across,  in  a  direct  line 
from  east  to  we^t. 

Extent.  The  area  is  17,500,000  square  miles,  so  that  it 
is  nearly  five  times  larger  than  Europe.  Asia  embraces  a 
third  of  all  the  land,  or  a  twelfth  of  the  entire  surface,  of 
the  globe. 

Coasts.  The  total  coast  line  of  Asia  is  35,000  miles.  In 
shape,  Asia  is  less  irregular  and  more  solid  than  Europe. 
Its  vast  interior  exhibits  an  immense  expanse  of  land  far 
removed  from  the  ocean.  Each  of  the  great  oceans  which 
wash  the  shores  of  Asia  has  several  inlets.  The  Arctic 
Ocean,  on  the  north  side  of  Asia,  has  two  gulfs, —  the  Gulf 
of  Obi  and  the  Gulf  of  Yenisei.  The  Pacific  Ocean,  which 
washes  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia,  has  the  following  arms: 
Bering  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  the  Sea  of  Japan,  the  Yel- 
low Sea,  and  the  China  Sea.  These  are,  in  a  great  measure, 
land  inclosed,  though  connected  with  the  ocean  by  nume- 

1  Most  probably  derived  from  a  Hebrew  or  Assyrian  root  meaning 
the  "east"  or  the  "rising  sun."  It  is  also  held  by  some  that  it  is 
derived  from  the  Assei,  one  of  the  old  Caucasian  tribes  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy. 


rous  channels.  The  northern  part  of  the  Sea  of  Japan  is 
called  the  Gulf  of  Tartary.  The  Indian  Ocean,  on  the  south 
of  Asia,  divides  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  Arabian 
Sea.  The  Red  Sea1  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  two  inland  seas, 
are  likewise  arms  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Straits.  The  most  important  straits  of  Asia  are  five  in 
number:  The  Strait  of  Babel  Mandeb,  forming  the  entrance 
to  the  Red  Sea;  the  Strait  of  Ormuz,  forming  the  entrance 
to  the  Persian  Gulf;  the  Strait  of  Malakka,  forming  one 
entrance  to  the  China  Sea;  the  Strait  of  Sunda,  forming 
another  entrance  to  the  China  Sea;  and  Bering  Strait,  be- 
tween Asia  and  North  America. 

Capes.  The  principal  capes  are  Northeast  Cape,  or  Cape 
Chelyuskin,  on  the  north;  East  Cape  and  Cape  Lopatka,  on 
the  east;  Cape  Romania,  Cape  Comorin,  and  Ras  al  Had, 
on  the  south;  and  Cape  Carmel  and  Cape  Baba,  on  the  west. 


Tea  Plant.     Island  of  Ceylon. 


1  Said  to  be  derived  from  the  coral  reefs  which  abound  in  it.  This 
is  not  correct,  as  the  corals  are  mostly  white.  But  patches  of  deep- 
red  water  are  frequently  seen  within  the  reefs,  whence  the  name. 
These  patches  are  due  to  the  presence  of  large  numbers  of  microscopic 
animalculee.     (Hughes.) 


105 


106 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Peninsulas.  The  following  peninsulas  belong  to  Asia : 
Kamchatka,  Corea,  Farther  India,  India  Proper,  Arabia,  and 
Asia  Minor. 

Islands.  The  islands  of  Asia  are  important  and  nume- 
rous, especially  on  its  southern  and  eastern  coasts,  and  in- 
clude the  New  Siberia  Islands  and  the  Bear  Islands,  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean;  the  Aleutian  Islands,  the  Japanese  Islands, 
the  Philippine  Islands,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean;  Ceylon,  the 
Andaman  and  Nicobar  Islands,  and  the  Laccadive  and  Mal- 
dive  Islands,  in  the  Indian  Ocean;  Cyprus  and  Rhodes,  in 
the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Mountains.  The  mountains  of  Asia  run  principally 
from  east  to  west,  and  generally  border  the  table- lands.  A 
few  run  from  north  to  south.  The  principal  mountain 
ranges  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  the  Hindu  Kush,  the 
Altai  Mountains,  the  Kuenlun  and  Thian  Shau  ranges,  the 
Elburz*  Mountains,  the  Caucasus,  the  Karakoram  Moun- 
tains, the  Mountains  of  Armenia,  the  Taurus  Mountains, 
the  Mountains  of  Lebanon,  and  the  Ghats. 

Rivers.  The  rivers  of  Asia  are  the  largest  in  the  Old 
World.  Most  of  them  have  their  sources  in  the  high  table- 
lands and  bordering  mountains  in  the  interior  of  the  conti- 
nent The  principal  rivers  are  the  Obi,  the  Yenisei,  and  the 
Lena,  the  three  great  rivers  of  Siberia;  the  Hoangho  and 
the  Yangtze,  in  China;  the  Ganges,  in  India;  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates;  and  the  Irawadi,  Brahmaputra,  and  Ganges, 
in  India. 

Lakes.  The  three  largest 
lakes  of  Asia,  excluding  the 
Caspian  Sea,  are  Aral,  26,000 
square  miles;  Baikal,  15,000; 
Balkash,  9,000. 

Inhabitants.  The  popu- 
lation of  Asia  comprehends 
more  than  half  of  the  human 
race,  and  numbers  at  least 
eight  hundred  and  fifty  mil- 
lions. They  are  of  various 
families  of  mankind.  They 
differ  in  language, appearance, 
and  color  of  skin.  More  than" 
thirty  different  languages  are 
spoken  in  India  alone,  nearly 
all  of  them,  however,  being 
derived  from  the  Sanscrit. 
The  languages  of  eastern  Asia 
—  China  and  the  Indo-Chinese 
Peninsula  —  form  a  totally  dif- 
ferent class.  The  Chinese, 
Indo-Chinese,  and  Mongolian 
tribes  are  distinguished  by 
striking  differences  from  the 
other  nations  of  mankind. 
They  have  a  yellowish-brown 
(or  olive)  complexion,  abroad 
flat  face,  with  '  obliquely  set 
and  deeply  sunk  eyes,  the  in- 


Moorish  Tower.     Cyprus. 


ner  corners  slanting  towards  the  nose;  lank  and  black  hair, 
with  little  beard;  a  broad,  square,  and  thick-set  frame,  with 
a  stature  considerably  below  that  of  the  European. 

Religions.  Of  the  two  great  forms  of  religion  that 
originated  in  the  southwest  of  Asia,  Christianity  and  Mo- 
hammedanism, the  latter  has  spread  over  Arabia,  Asiatic 
Turkey,  Persia,  and  Turkestan,  while  the  former  is  con- 
fined to  Armenia,  Georgia,  and  smaller  sections  of  Asiatic 
Russia  and  British  India.  The  prevailing  religion  in  India 
is  Brahmanism,  with  its  offshoot,  Buddhism.  The  Lama- 
ism  of  Tibet  is  another  form  of  Buddhism.  The  religion 
of  the  upper  classes  in  China  and  Japan  is  Confucianism. 
The  nomadic  tribes  of  Siberia  and  the  central  parts  of  the 
continent  are  heathens. 

Divisions.  By  far  the  greater  portion  of  Asia  is  held 
by  three  powers,  two  of  which  are  European.  Russia  holds 
the  whole  of  the  northern  part  of  the  continent,  a  large 
part  of  central  Asia,  and  the  provinces  of  the  Caucasus. 
India  is  under  the  control  of  the  British.  The  Chinese 
Empire  comprises  China  Proper  and  the  adjacent  regions 
of  Tibet,  Eastern  Turkestan  and  Zungaria,  Mongolia,  Man- 
churia, and  Corea. 

Of  the  minor  powers  in  Asia,  the  most  important  are 

Japan  on  the  east,  and  Turkey  and  Persia  on  the  west. 

The  United  States  of  America  maintain  authority  over 

•the  Philippine  Islands.     France  controls  the  eastern  part  of 

Farther  India.     Portugal  has 

a  few  small  settlements  on  the 

coasts  of  India  and  China. 
The   following  is  a  list  of 

the  countries  of  Asia:  — 

Asiatic  Turkey. 

Asiatic  Russia. 

Arabia. 

Persia. 

The  Chinese  Empire. 

Japan. 

Baluchistan. 

India. 

Farther  India. 

East  Indian  Archipelago. 

Afghanistan. 


QUESTIONS  ON  ASIA. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word 
"Asia"?  Locate  Asia.  Name  some 
of  the  principal  seas  of  Asia.  Give 
the  names  of  some  of  the  peninsulas. 
What  are  the  principal  islands.' 
Name  the  highest  mountains.  De- 
scribe the  personal  features  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Asia.  What  two  great 
formsof  religion  originated  in  Asia  .' 
What  are  the  principal  straits  of 
Asia?  Name  the  capes f  Tell  what 
you  can  about  the  population  of  Asia. 
What  important  Asiatic  islands  be- 
long to  the  United  States?  Tell 
what  you  can  of  the  history  of  theM 
islands. 


Asiatic  Turkey. 


107 


ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

The  Sultan's  Asiatic  empire  is  much  larger  than  Turkey 
in  Europe.  It  comprehends  three  distinct  divisions:  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  and  the  countries  on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Asiatic  Turkey  is,  for  the 
most  part,  warm,  but  varied  in  different  regions.  The  sea- 
sons of  rain  and  drought  are  of  regular  recurrence. 

Productions.  The  vegetable  and  mineral  productions 
of  Asiatic  Turkey  are  varied  and  valuable,  but  undeveloped. 
Raisins,  figs,  almonds,  oranges,  dates,  'wheat,  barley,  rice, 
and  maize,  with  tobacco,  hemp,  and  flax,  are  grown.  Horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  bred  in  large  numbers,  but  the 
camel  is  the  ordinary  beast  of  burden. 

Inhabitants.  The  population  is  estimated  to  be  about 
21,000,000.  It  is  composed  of  various  nations,  including  the 
Turks,  Greeks,  Syrians,  Jews,  Arabs,  Armenians,  Kurds, 
and  many  other  tribes  of  mountaineers.  The  majority  of 
the  people  are  engaged  in  different  forms  of  agriculture. 

Government.  Asiatic  Turkey  is  under  the  same  gen- 
eral government  as  Turkey  in  Europe.  The  Sultan,  who 
resides  at  Constantinople,  delegates  authority  to  the  various 
pashas. 

ASIA  MINOR. 

Asia  Minor  '  is  an  extensive  peninsula  between  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Black  seas. 

Islands.  There  are  numerous  islands  off  the  coast.  The  large  and 
important  island  of  Cyprus  is  found  off  the  south  coast,  in  that  part  of 
the  Mediterranean  known  as  the  Levant.  It  is  138  miles  in  length 
and  GO  miles  in  breadth.  It  has  an  area  of  3,584  square  miles.  Cyprus, 
at  an  early  date  in  history,  became  known  for  its  copper.  When  it  was 
under  the  control  of  the  Venetians  it  had  a  population  of  1,000,000, 
but  at  present  there  are  only  about  210,000,  mainly  Greeks. 

Rhodes,  "the  Pearl  of  the  Levant,"  is  a  rich  and  fertile  island, 
producing  corn,  wine,  and  fruits.  The  strongly  fortified  capital, 
Rhodes,  which  was  held  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John  against  the  Turks 
for  214  years,  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  magnificent  cities  in  the 


Rhodes.     Street  of  the  Knights  Templars. 


1  That  is,  the  Leaner  Asm,  by  distinction  from  the  larger  portion  of 
the  continent  so  called. 


world.     It  was  here,  in  ancient  times,  that  the  celebrated  Colossus  of 
Rhodes  stood. 

Mountains  and  Plains.    The  interior  of  Asia  Minor  is  a  plateau, 
ranging  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     Mount 


A  Modern  Type  of  Woman  of  Bethlehem. 

Olympus,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  peninsula,  reaches  9,000  feet 
in  height,  and  Mount  Argeeus  is  upwards  of  13,000  feet. 

Rivers.  The  largest  river  of  Asia  Minor  is  the  Kizil  Irmak,  which 
flows  into  the  Black  Sea. 

Cities.  Smyrna  is  the  largest  city  in  Asia  Minor,  and  is  a  chief 
emporium  in  the  trade  of  the  Levant.  It  is  an  ancient  city,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  famous  cities  of  Ionia. 

Tersus  (Tarsus)  is  of  importance  as  being  the  birthplace  of  Paul 
the  Apostle,  and  is  in  the  Cilician  plain. 

Nearly  every  part  of  Asia  Minor  (as  well  as  Western  Asia  in  gen- 
eral) is  of  great  interest,  on  account  of  its  historic  associations.  Its 
towns,  now  many  of  them  ruins,  its  plains  and  hillsides,  its  rivers  and 
mountains,  are  mentioned  in  ancient  history.  Troy  stood  in  the  north- 
western corner  of  this  peninsula.  Ephesus  and  Miletus  were  on  its 
western  shores.  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  Laodicea,  and  Ciesarea  were  on 
its  interior  plains.  The  armies  of  the  Crusaders  marched  across  it, 
and  the  footsteps  of  Christian  apostles  have  imparted  sanctity  to  its  soil. 

SYRIA. 

Syria  extends  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  south- 
ward, to  the  border  of  Egypt.  It  is  mountainous  along  the 
coast,  and  a  desert  plain  in  the  interior.  The  southwestern 
portion  of  Syria  is  Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land. 

Mountains.  The  mountains  of  Syria  consist  of  two  chains,  and 
run  north  and  south,  parallel  to  a  large  portion  of  the  coast.  The 
most  noted  of  these  is  Mount  Lebanon,  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The 
highest  summits  of  Lebanon  are  between  9,000  and  10,000  feet.    Mount 


108 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


The  Brook  Kedron.     Palestine. 

Hermon,  mentioned  i:i  Scripture,  reaches  an  altitude  of  9,200  feet,  and 
its  summit  is  covered  with  snow  during  a  greater  part  of  the  year. 

Rivers.  The  chief  rivers  of  Syria  are  the  Orontes  and  the  Jordan. 
The  Orontes  rises  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  valley  of  Coele-Syria, 
and  flows  north  as  far  as  Antakia  (Antioch),  where  it  curves  west, 
finally  entering  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  Jordan  rises  on  the  slopes 
of  Mount  Hermon,  and  flows  to  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  only  70  miles 
long,  but  the  course  of  the  river  is  so  winding  that  it  exceeds  200  miles 
between  the  same  points.  The  course  of  the  Jordan  is  very  swift,  and 
there  are  numerous  rapids,  which  render  it  unnavigable. 

Lakes.     The  principal  are  the  Dead  Sea1  and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias.2 

The  Sea  (or  Lake)  of  Tiberias  is  a  body  of  fresh  water.  The  river 
Jordan  passes  through  it.  The  valley  of  the  Jordan  is  intensely  hot, 
owing  to  its  great  depression  below  the  country  on  either  side. 

The  Dead  Sea  consists  of  water  which  is  intensely  salt,  so  much  so 
as  to  render  it.  unfit  for  the  support  of  animal  life. 

Cities.  The  chief  cities  of  modern  Syria  are  Aleppo,  Damascus, 
Antioch,  Jerusalem,  Tripoli,  Jaffa. 

Damascus  is  now  the  largest  inland  city  of  Syria,  and  is  a  great 
center  of  the  caravan  trade. 

Jerusalem  stands  on  a  rocky  platform,  inclosed  on  three  sides  by 
deep  ravines,  about  midway  between  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Dead  seas.  It  has  for  centuries  been  a  mere  Turkish 
town,  but  the  recent  persecutions  in  Russia  have  caused  an 
enormous  influx  of  Jews  into  Palestine,  and  there  are  now 
over  50,000  of  them  in  Jerusalem  alone. 

Bethlehem,  where  Christ  was  born,  is  a  few  miles  south 
of  Jerusalem. 

Hebron  is  farther  south.  Jaffa,  the  ancient  Joppa,  on  the 
coast,  is  the  port  of  Jerusalem,  and  a  place  of  some  trade. 
The  first  railroad  train  on  the  road  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem 
was  run  on  September  13,  1892. 

Nazareth  is  north  of  Jerusalem,  and  is  five  miles  distant 
from  the  base  of  Mount  Tabor. 

Gaza,  in  the  southwest  of  Palestine,  occupies  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Gaza,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Philistines. 

Baalbee  lies  lies  to  the  northwest  of  Damascus.  It  is  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Heliopolis,  and  still  exhibits  the 
remains  of  its  ancient  temples. 

Palmyra,  the  Tadmor  of  Scripture,  northeast  of  Damascus, 
has  tho  beautiful  remains  of  an  ancient  temple  of  the  sun. 

1  The  proportion  of  saline  ingredients  is  about  25  per  cent, 
— that  is,  seven  times  the  usual  proportion  of  salts  in  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  (three  or  four  per  cent). 

2  The  Sea  of  Tiberias  is  also  called  the  "Sea  of  Galilee,'' 
"  Sea  of  Gennesaret, "  "Sea  of  Chinnereth." 


COUNTRIES  ON  THE  EUPHRATES  AND  TIGRIS. 

These  countries  comprehend  a  high  table-land,  called  the 
plateau  of  Armenia,  which  lies  at  an  elevation  of  6,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  the  mountains  by  which  it  is  crossed 
reach  upwards  of  4,000  feet  above  its  level,  so  that  their 
summits  are  more  than  10,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Rivers.  The  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  are  the  important  rivers 
of  this  region.  The  Euphrates,  which  is  1,700  miles  long,  is  the  largest 
river  in  western  Asia.  The  Tigris,  1,100  miles  long,  joins  the  Euphra- 
tes about  100  miles  above  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Lakes.  Lake  Van,  within  the  Turkish  portion  of  the  plateau,  is  80 
miles  long  and  30  broad.    As  the  lake  has  no  outlet,  its  waters  are  salt. 

Cities.  The  city  of  Erzerum  stands  near  a  high  plain,  near  one 
of  the  sources  of  the  Euphrates. 

Kars,  noted  for  its  gallant  defense  in  the  wars  of  1855  and  1877,  lies 
east  of  Erzerum. 

The  town  of  Van  stands  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  lake  called  by 
its  name. 

Bagdad,  on  the  Tigris,  is  the  great  city  of  this  region,  and  is  supe- 
rior in  size  and  population  to  any  other  city  in  the  eastern  division  of 
Asiatic  Turkey.      , 

Among  the  many  ancient  sites  which  belong  to  the  lands  that  are 
watered  by  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  are  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 
The  treasures  of  ancient  art  brought  within  recent  years  from  Nineveh 
have  enriched  our  museums.  The  remains  of  Babylon  have  not  yet 
been  fully  explored. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

How  does  Asiatic  Turkey  compare  with  Turkey  in  Europe?  Name 
its  three  distinct  divisions.  What  does  "Asia  Minor"  mean?  What 
is  meant  by  the  Levant?  Describe  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Tell  some 
interesting  facts  about  Rhodes.  What  is  meant  by  the  Colossus  of 
Rhodes?  What  is  the  principal  river  in  Asia  Minor?  Locate  Syria. 
Tell  what  you  can  about  Palestine.  What  do  you  know  about  Mount 
Lebanon?  What  are  the  chief  rivers  of  Syria?  Describe  the  river 
Jordan.  Describe  the  principal  lakes.  Describe  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
Describe  the  Dead  Sea.  Name  some  of  the  vegetable  and  mineral  pro- 
ductions of  Asiatic  Turkey.  Name  the  various  kinds  of  people  that 
inhabit  Asiatic  Turkey.  What  animal  takes  the  place  of  the  horse  in 
Asiatic  Turkey?  Name  the  principal  cities.  For  what  is  Smyrna  noted  ? 
Describe  Jerusalem.  Describe  Bethlehem.  Where  is  Nazareth?  Why 
are  all  these  places  and  names  so  interesting  to  us? 


Damascus. 


Asiatic  Russia. 


109 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

The  Asiatic  division  of  the  Russian  Em- 
pire embraces  more  than  a  third  of  Asia, — 
the  largest  of  the  continents, — and  nearly 
one  seventh  of  the  total  laud  area  of  the 
globe.  It  has  a  population  of  not  more 
than  eighteen  millions, — an  average  of  only 
three  persons  to  the  square  mile. 

Asiatic  Russia  includes  three  distinct 
divisions;  namely,  Siberia,  Russian  Central 
Asia,  and  Caucasia. 

CAUCASIA. 

Caucasia  embraces  the  territory  lying 
between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas.  The 
larger  part  of  the  province  is  mountainous. 
The  chain  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains  rises 
above  the  snow  line,  and  its  higher  regions 
exceed  10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  cli- 
mate is  temperate,  but  oneof  great  extremes. 
The  production  of  petroleum  forms  the  chief 
wealth  of  this  territory. 

The  population  of  Caucasia  is  about 
seven  and  a  half  millions.  The  majority  are  Georgians, 
and  other  people  of  the  Circassian  stock.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  Caucasus  are  noted  for  their  personal  beauty.  The 
Georgian  and  Circassian  girls,  once  sold  as  slaves  in  the 
markets  of  Constantinople,  were  brought  from  this  region. 

The  chief  town  of  Caucasia  is  Vladikavkaz,  on  the  south- 
ern terminus  of  the  Russian  railway  system. 

SIBERIA. 

Siberia  includes  all  the  northern  belt  of  the  Asiatic  conti- 
nent. It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean;  on 
the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean;  ou  the  south  by  the  Chinese 
Empire;   and  on  the  west  by  Russia  in  Europe. 

The  area  of  Siberia  is  estimated  at  4,830,000  square  miles. 
The  greatest  length,  from  Bering  Strait  to  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains, is  4,000  miles;  and  the  greatest  breadth,  from  north 
to  south,  is  about  2,000  miles. 


A  Construction  Gang  on  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway. 

Siberia  is  a  vast  lowland  plain.  The  Altai  Mountains 
form  its  southern  border. 

The  three  great  rivers  of  northern  Asia  are  the  Obi,  Yeni- 
sei, and  Lena,  belonging  to  Siberia. 

The  climate  is  intensely  cold,  a  moderate  temperature 
being  found  only  in  the  south. 

Siberia  has  two  natural  productions  of  great  value, — 
metals  and  furs. 

It  has  a  population  of  less  than  five  million  people.  The 
native  tribes  are,  for  the  most  part,  idolaters.  Those  dwell- 
ing in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  country  exhibit  a  low  and 
barbarous  condition  of  life,  and  subsist  by  hunting  and 
fishing.  The  people  of  Kamchatka  are  of  short  stature; 
they  have  few  settled  habitations,  and  are  remarkable  for 
the  extent  to  which  they  use  the  dog  for  the  purpose  of 
draft,  as  we  do  the  horse. 

Tobolsk  is  a  fine  old  town,  ou  a  high  bluff  at  the  junction 


City  and  Port  of  Vladivostok.    Pacific  Coast  Terminus  of  Trans-Siberian  Railway.    Nearest  Port  in  United  States  is  Seattle,  Washington. 


Map  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  and  Connections. 


110 

of  the  Irtish  and 

Tobol  rivers.    It 

was  for  centuries 

the    capital    of 

Asiatic    Russia. 

Vladivostok     is 

the   chief   naval 

station  of  Russia 

on   the    Pacific, 

and  is  a  strongly 

fortified  port,  and  the  Pacific  coast  terminus  of  the  great 

Trans-Siberian  railway. 

The  great  railroad,  connecting  Siberia  and  Russia,  which 
is  now  building,  will  rapidly  change  the  commercial  features 
of  this  country. 

RUSSIAN  CENTRAL  ASIA. 

Russian  Central  Asia  includes  the  whole  of  the  vast  re- 
gion which  extends  from  western  Siberia  on  the  north  to 
the  borders  of  Afghanistan  and  Persia  on  the  south.  It  in- 
cludes two  of  the  five  general  governments  into  which  the 
Asiatic  part  of  the  empire  is  divided. 

The  entire  region  contains  only  five  and  a  half  million 
inhabitants.  The  people  are  composed  mostly  of  nomadic 
tribes,  who  roam  with  their  herds  over  the  steppes,  or  plains. 
Millions  of  sheep  and  goats  are  reared;  horses,  camels,  and 
cattle  are  numerous. 

KHIVA. 

Khiva,  a  Russian  vassal  state,  south  of  the  Sea  of  Aral,  has  an  area 
of  U'2,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about  three  quarters  of  a 
million.     The  people  are  of  Turkish  origin. 

BOKHARA. 

Bokhara  is  a  Russian  vassal  state  containing  about  92,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  about  two  and  one  half  millions. 

The  capital,  Bokhara,  lies  within  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Zarafshan, 
and  is  only  a  few  miles  from  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

Name  three  distinctive  divisions  of  Asiatic  Russia.  Describe  Cau- 
casia. Describe  Siberia.  What  are  the  natural  productions  of  Siberia? 
Tell  what  you  can  about  Kamchatka.  Of  what  race  are  the  people? 
Describe  Vladivostok.  Why  is  it  of  great  importance  to  the  people 
who  live  near  the  coast?  Describe  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad.  De- 
scribe Russian  Central  Asia.  What  about  the  people?  What  occupa- 
tions do  they  follow?     What  about  Khiva?     What  about  Bokhara? 

PERSIA. 

sran  Persia  is  a  country  of  western  Asia. 

J* ...,71*  Tt  contains  an  area  of  682,000  square 

miles.  The  Caspian  Sea  on  the  north, 
and  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of 
Oman  on  the  south,  wash  the  shores 
of  Persia. 

Surface.  The  interior  of  Persia  is  a  plateau,  elevated  from  three 
thousand  to  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  bordered  on  three 
sides  by  mountain  chains.  Part  of  the  interior  plateau  is  a  region 
called  the  Great  Salt  Desert. 

Rivers.  There  are  but  few  rivers,  the  principal  one  being  the 
Karun  River,  and  the  only  one  navigable  for  sea-going  vessels. 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Climate.  The  climate  of  Persia  exhibits  great  extremes. 
The  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  are  among  the  hottest  re- 
gions in  the  world.  The  mountain  valleys  possess  a  delight- 
ful and  equable  climate,  and  are  the  most  fertile  portions 
of  Persia. 

Productions.  In  the  elevated  valleys  the  vine,  fig, 
watermelon,  and  peach  abound,  and  a  rich  vegetation  clothes 
the  sides  of  the  hills.  Wild  flowers  grow  abundantly,  such 
as  the  narcissus,  iris,  and  the  asphodel. 

Inhabitants.  Persia  has  about  nine  million  inhabitants. 
Only  about  one  quarter  are  of  the  pure  Persian  race.  The 
rest  are  Turks,  Kurds,  Arabs,  and  other  wandering  tribes. 

Religion.      The  religion  is  mostly  Mohammedanism. 

Education.  In  no  other  country  in  Asia,  except  China,  is  educa- 
tion so  general. 

Industries.     Although  the  country  is  largely  an  abso- 
lute desert,  most  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agricultural 
and  pastoral  pursuits,  and  the  manufacture  of  silks,  carpets 
shawls,  and  arms  is  carried  on. 

Government.  The  government  of  Persia  is  a  despotic 
monarchy,  the  sovereign  being  called  the  Shah.1 

QUESTIONS  ON  PERSIA. 

Describe  the  natural  features  of  Persia.  Where  do  we  find  the  hot- 
test regions  in  the  world?  What  are  the  productions  of  Persia?  De- 
scribe the  industries  of  Persia.    How  are  the  people  of  Persia  governed? 


ARABIA. 

Arabia2  is  a  large  country  in  the  southwest  of  Asia,  and 
forms  the  most  westerly  of  the  three  vast  peninsulas  of  south- 
ern Asia.  It  has  an  area  of  one  and  one  quarter  million 
square  miles. 

Natural  Features.  Arabia  has  mountain  chains  lying  along  its 
seaward  borders, — west,  south,  and  east.  The  highest  peak  of  the 
Sir.ai  Mountains  reaches  9,300  feet  above  the  level  of  the'  sea.  The 
Arabian  Desert  presents,  for  the  most  part,  a  gravelly  or  sandy  surface, 
and  is  in  some  places  covered  with  high  and  barren  masses  of  hills, 
forming  a  rocky  and  stony  wilderness. 

Arabia  has  neither  rivers  nor  lakes.  There  are  a  number  of  streams, 
which  become  rapid  torrents  during  the  season  of  rain,  but  are  dry  the 
greater  part  of  the  year. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  hot  and  dry.  Rain  very  sel- 
dom falls  in  this  region. 

Productions.  The  vine,  fig,  peach,  and  olive  flourish 
in  the  most  fertile  parts,  and  the  date  palm  grows  in  every 
oasis  on  the  Arabian  Desert. 


1  The  Shah  is  officially  styled  "  Shah-in-Shah,"  or  King  of  Kings. 

2  Called  by  the  Arabs     Jezereet  El  Arab, ' '  the  peninsula  of  the  Arabs. 


The  Chinese  Empire 


111 


Inhabitants.  Arabia  has  about  twelve  million  inhabi- 
tants. The  Arabs  of  the  desert  are  called  Bedouins;  they 
dwell  in  tents,  and  wander  from  place  to  place.  Their  wealth 
consists  of  sheep,  goats,  camels,  and  horses. 

Religion.     The  Arabs  profess  Mohammedanism. 

Industries.  There  is  little  manufacturing  industry  in  Arabia. 
There  is  considerable  trade  carried  on  by  caravans.  The  camel  is  used 
as  the  beast  of  burden. 

Government.  The  people  of  Arabia  are  divided  into 
tribes,  the  government  of  which  is  patriarchal, —  that  is,  the 
head  of  each  tribe  occupies  the  place  of  father  of  a  family. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ARABIA. 

Locate  Arabia.  What  can  you  tell  about  its  mountains?  Name  its 
rivers,  capes,  and  lakes.  Describe  its  climate.  What  is  an  oasis f  De- 
scribe the  Arabian  Desert.     How  are  the  people  of  Arabia  governed  f 

THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE. 

The  Chinese  Empire  extends  over  more  than  a 

quarter  of  Asia.     It  contains  four  and  oue  half 

million  square  miles,  or  a  twelfth  of  the  entire 

land  surface  of  the  globe.    The  population 

is  said  to  be  four  hundred  millions. 

CHINA. 

China  is  a  large  country  of  eastern  Asia.  It  is  divided 
from  Mongolia  by  the  Great  Wall  of  China,  a  vast  rampart 
of  earth  ten  to  thirty  feet 
high,  which  runs  over  hill 
and  valley  for  1,250  miles, 
along  the  northern  border 
line  of  China,  and  which 
was  built  to  protect  the 
country  from  Tartar  inva- 
sion. 

Coasts.  The  coast  line  of 
China  is  extensive,  being  up- 
wards of  2,500  _  -'" 
miles. 

A  vast  numbei 
of  islands  skirt  the 
coast,  especially 
between  the  em- 
bouchures of  the 
Canton  and  the 
Yangtze  rivers. 

The  chief  in- 
lets are  the  Gulfs 
of  Pechili  and  Liaotung,  the 
Bays  of  Korea  and  Hangchau, 
and  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin. 

The  most  important  straits 
are  the  Strait  of  Pechili,  be- 
tween the  gulf  of  the  same 
name  and  the  Yellow  Sea;  the 
Strait  of  Formosa,  between 
the  East  Sea  and  the  China 
Sea;  and  the  Strait  of  Hai- 
nan, between  the  China  Sea 
and  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin. 

Islands.  The  principal 
islands  belonging  to  China  are 


Scenes  in  China. 


1.  Chinese  Street  Barber. 

2.  Port  of  Chungking, 


:t.  Walls  of  Pekin. 
4.  Street  in  Pekin. 


Hainan  and  Chusan.  Hongkong  is  a  British  possession.  Formosa 
now  belongs  to  Japan. 

Hainan,  180  miles  long  by  100  broad,  lies  in  the  south,  between  the 
China  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin.  The  coast  districts  are  occupied 
by  the  Chinese,  but  the  aboriginal  and  barbarous  tribes  of  the  interior 
are  virtually  independent.  Its  capital  is  Kienchau,  a  populous  city 
on  its  northern  coast.  Its  chief  port,  Kiungchau,  on  the  southwest 
coast,  is  open  to  foreign  trade. 

Chusan,  the  largest  of  a  group  of  islands  off  the  entrance  to  Hang- 
chau Bay,  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1840,  and  held  for  some  time 
as  a  guaranty  for  the  payment  of  the  war  indemnity. 

Hongkong"" was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1842.  It  is  hilly,  well 
watered,  and  tolerably  healthy;  and  its  situation,  off  the  mouth  of  the 
Canton  River,  gives  it  political  and  commercial  importance.  Its  area 
is  30  square  miles.  Its  population  numbers  about  221,500,  of  whom 
211,000  are  Chinese.  The  chief  town  is  Victoria,  on  the  north  coast 
of  the  island. 

Mountains.  The  geater  part  of  China  is  mountainous.  The  moun- 
tains have  a  general  east-to-west  direction.  The  lofty  mountain  chain 
on  the  western  border,  which  separates  China  Proper  from  Tibet,  bears 
the  name  of  Yunling. 

Plains.  The  northeastern  part  of  China  forms  the  extensive  low- 
land known  as  the  Plain  of  China,  which  is  700  miles  long,  and  covers 
an  area  of  more  than  200,000  square  miles. 

Rivers.  The  four  most  important  rivers  are  the  Yangtze,  Hoangho, 
Sikiang,  and  Peiho. 

The  Yangtze,  or  "Blue  River,"  is  the  longest  river  in  the  eastern 
half  of  the  globe,  and  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  to  Ichang,  1,200 
miles  from  the  sea;  and  for  600  miles  farther  up,  to  the  new  port  of 
Chungking, —  the  commercial  capital  of  western  China, —  it  is  navi- 
gable for  smaller  steamers,  while  junks   and  small  boats  can  ascend 

some    hundreds  of   miles  still 
farther  up  the  river.     Its  total 
length  is  3,200  miles,  and    at 
Hankau,  700  miles  inland,  it  is 
fully  a  mile  in  width,  but  its 
depth  and  volume  vary  consid- 
erably with  the  seasons.     This 
great  river  drains  nearly  a  mil- 
lion square  miles  of  territory. 
The  Hoangho,  or  ' '  Yellow 
River,"  like  the  Yangtze,  rises 
in  the  plateau  of  Central  Asia, 
but  is  not  so  capa- 
ble of  navigation, 
owing  to    sudden 
changes  of  depth 
and  volume,    and 
of  channel  some- 
times.  '•  Previous 
to  the  great  floods 
of  1851-53,  its  out- 
let to  the  sea  was 
about    100    miles 
north  of   the  mouth  of   the 
Yangtze ;  but  it  then  altered 
its  course,  and  made  an  out- 
let into  the  Gulf  of  Pechili, 
300  miles  farther  north  than 
its  former  mouth. 

The  Sikiang  is  900  miles 
long.  Its  estuary,  the  Can- 
ton River,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  commercial  water- 
ways in  China. 

The  Peiho  is  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  several  rivers 
at  Tientsin. 


5.  Native  Stores. 

6.  Observatory. 


7.  Merchandise  Service. 


112 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Productions.  Of  the  natural 
productions,  the  tea  plant  is  the 
most  remarkable.  It  is  a  shrub  of 
moderate  size,  which  grows  abun- 
dantly in  the  southeastern  provin- 
ces of  the  country.  The  leaves  are 
gathered  at  particular  seasons,  and, 
according  to  the  period  at  which 
they  are  picked,  and  the  process  of 
drying  which  they  afterwards  un- 
dergo, they  form  either  the  black  or 
green  teas  of  commerce.  The  or- 
ange, mulberry,  jujube,  sugar-cane, 
and  cotton  plant  are  native  to  the 
soil.  Good  coal,  iron,  copper,  lead, 
and  tin  abound.  Mercury,  also,  is 
found.  There  are  many  valuable 
salt-wells  in  the  Min  River  district 
of  western  China. 

Education  and  Religion.  Ed- 
ucation is  well  advanced,  and  is  very 
general.  There  is  no  national  or 
state  religion,  but  Confucianism  is 
professed  by  the  higher  classes. 
The   lower   classes   mostly  profess 

Buddhism,  while  vast  numbers  are  attached  to  the  degrad- 
ing superstitions  of  Taoism. 

Industries.  The  great  industries  of  China  are  agricul- 
ture, manufacturing,  and  commerce.  The  great  mass  of 
the  people  derive  their  subsistence  from  the  soil.  Rice  is 
the  chief  article  of  food,  and  tea  the  universal  beverage. 
Silk  and  cotton  are  among  the  most  important  manufac- 
ures.  The  silk- worm  is  a  native  of  China. .  The  manufac- 
ture of  earthenware  is  of  national  importance,  and  the  fact 
that  we  call  our  finer  pottery  ' '  chinaware ' '  shows  the  origin 
of  the  ware.  The  white- wax  industry,  and  the  manufacture 
of  salt,  are  among  the  most  important  of  the  industries  in 
western  China.  The  carving  of  ivory,  the  making  of  tea- 
caddies,  trays,  and  other  lacquered  ware,  various  works  in 
metal,  and  the  art  of  printing  from  raised  blocks,  indicate 
the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the  Chinese  artisan. 

Commerce.   The 

foreign  trade  of  China, 
which  has  greatly  de- 
veloped within  the  last 
few  years,  is  chiefly 
carried  on  with  the 
United  States  of  Amer- 
ica and  with  the  United 
Kingdom.  Newsteam- 
ship  lines  have  been 
established  from  Seat- 
tle and  Tacoma,  and 
from  San  Diego  and 
other  western  coast 
ports  of  the  United 
States.       The    article    Docks  at  Hongkong,  China. 


Elevated  Tramway  to  Victoria  Peak,  Hongkong. 


most  largely  exported  from  China 
is  tea,  vast  quantities  going  to  the 
United  States  and  Europe. 

The  most  important  ports  for 
foreign  commerce  are  Shanghai, 
Canton,  Fuchau,  Haukau,  Swatau, 
Amoy,  Tientsin,  and  Chifn. 

Internal  Communication.  Interior 
trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of  the  mag- 
nificent  rivers,  which  are  connected  by  a 
network  of  canals.  Railroads  and  tele- 
graph lines  are  being  rapidly  extended. 

Government.  The  government 
of  China  is  an  absolute  despotism. 
The  emperor  is  the  recognized  vice- 
gerent of  heaven,  and  father  of  all 
his  subjects.  The  mandarins  form 
nine  different  orders  of  rank. 

Cities.  There  are  many  large  cities, 
and  the  banks  of  the  rivers  literally  swarm 
with  human  life'. 

Pekin,  or  the  "Court  of  the  North," 
the  capital  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  is  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  country,  near  the 
river  Peiho,  and  not  far  from  the  Great 
Wall.  Fifty  miles  farther  down  the  same 
river  is  the  great  port  of  Tientsin,  640 
Nankin,  which  is  the  "Court  of  the  South," 


miles  from  its  mouth, 
ranks  second  to  Pekin. 

Shanghai  was  first  opened  to  European  commerce  in  1842,  and  has 
become  the  chief  commercial  emporium  of  China.  Haukau,  higher  up 
the  river,  is  the  chief  mart  of  the  tea  district  in  the  interior. 

Fuchau  is  a  great  tea  port. 

Canton,  the  "  City  of  Perfection,"  was  long  the  sole  point  of  inter- 
course between  the  Chinese  and  the  people  of  other  lands,  and  the  only 
mart  of  the  tea  trade. 

TIBET. 

Tibet  is  an  inland  country  to  the  west  of  China  Proper. 
It  consists  of  a  vast  table-land,  upwards  of  15,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  has  an  area  of  about  650,000  square 
miles.  It  has  a  population  of  about  six  million  people,  mostly 
Mongolians.     • 

The  industry  of  Tibet  is  almost  wholly  pastoral.  Vast 
herds  of  sheep,  mountain  goats,  aud  buffalos  are  reared. 

The  fine  hair  of  the 
Tibetan  goat  is  woven 
into  cashmere  shawls. 
The  real  sovereign  of 
the  country  is  the 
Grand  Lama,  or  high 
priest  of  the  Buddhist 
religion,  of  which  Ti- 
bet is  the  center.  The 
capital  of  the  country 
is  Lassa,  where  the 
Chinese  viceroy  re- 
sides. Near  Lassa  is 
the  great  monastery 
where  six  thousand 
Material  from  the  United  States  tor  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,     priests  reside. 


China.  —  Japan. 


113 


MONGOLIA. 

Mongolia  comprehends  a  vast  region  of  Central  Asia, 

one  and  one  quarter  million  square  miles  in  extent,  between 

China  and  Siberia.    This  immense  region  has  less  than  two 

millions  population.     It  is  a  vast  upland,  which  averages 

about  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.     It  is  the  primeval  home  of 

the  great  Mongolian  branch  of  the  human  family.    Mongolia 

is  a  vast  pastoral  region,  and  the  Mongol  of  the  present  day 

is  a  shepherd. 

ZUNGARIA. 

Zungabia  includes  the  wild  and  desolate  region  between 
the  Thian  Shan  and  the  Altai  Mountains. 

EASTERN  TURKESTAN. 

Eastern  Turkestan  is  the  most  westerly  division  of  the 

Chinese  Empire. 

MANCHURIA. 

Manchuria  is  an  extensive  but  little-known  tract  of  coun- 
try  lying  east  of  Mongolia. 

KOREA. 

Korea,  called  by  the  natives  the  "Land  of  the  Morning 
Calm,"  is  a  peninsula  which  stretches  southward  between 
the  Yellow  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Japan.  The  form  of  govern- 
ment is  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  the  administration  is 
based  on  that  of  China.  The  capital  is  Seoul,  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  peninsula,  on  the  river  Yalu. 

QUESTIONS  ON  CHINA. 

Locate  the  Chinese  Empire.  What  is  said  about  its  population? 
Describe  the  Great  Wall  of  China.  Describe  some  of  the  islands  of 
China.  Describe  Hongkong.  To  what  country  does  Hongkong  belong? 
Name  some  of  the  mountains  of  China.  Name  some  of  the  rivers. 
What  is  the  largest  river?  What  are  some  of  the  natural  productions 
of  China?  What  about  the  education  of  the  people  of  China?  What 
is  the  principal  article  of  production,  used  as  a  universal  beverage? 
In  what  place  did  chinaware  have  its  origin?  What  is  said  about  the 
foreign  trade  of  China?  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  interior  trade  of 
China.  Name  several  of  the  principal  cities,  and  state  for  what  are  they 
noted.  Describe  Tibet.  Prom  what  are  cashmere  shawls  made?  De- 
scribe Mongolia.  What  are  the  occupations  of  the  people  of  Mongolia? 
Describe  Korea.     What  is  the  capital  of  Korea? 

JAPAN. 

Japan,  sometimes  called  the  "Britain 
of  the  Pacific,"  is  situated  to  the  east 
ward  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  the  Sea 
of  Japan  separating  it  from  the  main- 
land. This  ancient  empire  consists  of 
an  extensive  chain  of  islands,  the  lar- 
gest of  which  is  Nippon,  which  means  the  "Land  of  the 
Sunrise."  The  total  area  of  the  Japanese  Empire  is  over 
162,000  square  miles. 

Coasts.  The  coasts  of  Japan  are  of  great  extent,  and 
are  indented  with  magnificent  natural  harbors,  such  as  the 
Bay  of  Tokyo  and  the  Gulf  of  Osaka. 

Natural  Features.  AH  the  islands  are  mountainous ; 
the  principal  ranges  in  each  extend  parallel  to  the  eastern 
'•oasts.    Several  of  the  higher  mountains  are  volcanos.    Fer- 


Bay  of  Tokyo. 


tile  plains  and  valleys,  washed  by 
numerous  rivers,  extend  to  the  sea. 
The  general  height  of  the  mountains 
is  from  3,000  to  8,000  feet,  but  the 
extinct  volcano  of  Fujiyama,  about 
60  miles  from  Tokyo,  in  the  island 
of  Nippon,  reaches  an  elevation  of 
12,370  feet.  There  are  several  other 
active  volcanos,  and  severe  earth- 
quakes are  frequent. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate and  healthy,  but  hurricanes, 
storms,  and  dense  fogs  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  surrounding  seas,  and  in  winter 
the  western  coasts  suffer  from  violent  polar  winds,  which 
render  navigation  dangerous.  The  warm  winds  bring  abun- 
dant moisture,  and  give  Japan  an  extraordinarily  rich  and 
flourishing  vegetation. 

Productions.  Among  the  mineral  productions  are  gold, 
silver,  iron,  copper,  and  tin;  and  in  the  vegetable  world, 
trees  that  yield  valuable  gums  and  resins,  with  the  tea  plant 
and  the  mulberry.  The  latter  is  used  as  the  food  of  the  silk- 
worm. 

Inhabitants.  The  total  population  is  over  forty-one 
million  people.  The  people  are  mostly  Buddhists,  and  the 
higher  classes  generally  profess  Confucianism. 

Education.  Elementary  education  is  compulsory.  Both 
the  elementary  and  the  higher  schools  are  supported  by  gov- 
ernment grants  and  local  rates.  There  are  several  normal 
schools  for  teachers,  and  one  university. 

Industries.  The  Japanese  are  a  skillful  and  indus- 
trious people,  and  have  made  marvelous  progress  in  the 


Typical  Country  Residence  in  Japan. 


114 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


past  few  years,  both  in  civilization  and  in  the  adoption  of 
European  arts  and  appliances.  The  careful  culture  of  the 
land,  the  good  roads,  and  the  skillful  manufacture  of  silks, 
cotton,  porcelain,  and  japanned  ware  attest  their  industry 
and  ingenuity.  Rice,  wheat,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  the  tea 
plaut  and  mulberry  are  grown. 

Internal  Communication.  Interior  trade  is  carried 
on  by  sea.  The  first  railroad  was  built  in  1872,  and  there 
are  now  2,520  miles  of  railway  open  for  traffic.  There  are 
thousands  of  miles  of  state  and  provincial  roads,  and  ex- 
cellent postal  and  telegraphic  service. 

Foreign  Trade.  The  foreign  trade  with  the  United 
States,  and  with  the  United  Kingdom,  China,  and  France, 
has  greatly  increased. 

Government.  The  government  of  Japan  was  formerly 
an  absolute  despotism,  but  is  now  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
the  present  Emperor,  a  wise  and  enlightened  ruler,  having 
enfranchised  the  people,  and  substituted  constitutional  gov- 
ernment for  monarchical  absolutism.  The  First  National 
Parliament  of  Japan  met  for  the  first  time  in  the  autumn 
of  1890,  at  Tokyo. 

Cities.  The  capital  of  the  islands  is  Tokyo,  formerly  called  Yeddo, 
situated  on  the  southeastern  coast  of  Nippon,  at  the  head  of  a  fine  bay. 
The  city  contains  a  large  number  of  foreigners. 

Yokohama  is  a  modern  town,  several  miles  nearer  the  sea.  It  forms 
the  port  of  Tokyo,  and  has  become  the  chief  mart  of  the  foreign  trade. 
Tourist  travel  between  Yokohama,  Seattle,  Tacoma,  San  Francisco,  and 
San  Diego  has  increased  with  marvelous  rapidity  during  the  past  five 
years. 

Kyoto,  formerly  called  Miako,  on  the  same  island,  farther  to  the 
west,  is  a  large  city;  and,  until  1869,  had  been  the  imperial  capital 
for  over  1,000  years. 

Osaka,  south  of  Kyoto,  and  Kobe,  are,  after  Yokohama,  the  most 
important  of  the  "open"  ports.     Hakodate  and  Matsumai,  on  the 


One  Hundred  Steps,  Yokohama. 


southern  coast  of  the  island  of  Yezo,  are  commercial  towns  of  consid- 
erable importance. 

Formosa,  or  "the  Beautiful,"  was  so  called  by  the  Portuguese. 
At  the  time  of  its  transfer  from  China  to  Japan  in  1895,  the  western 
districts  only  were  completely  subjugated.  At  Kelung,  on  the  northern 
coast,  coal  mines  are  worked. 

*        HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

The  Portuguese  traded  with  the  Japanese  in  1549,  and  were  followed 
by  the  Jesuits.  Commerce  and  conversion  following,  a  policy  of  isola- 
tion was  inaugurated,  and  fifty  thousand  converts  massacred.  Com- 
modore Perry  led  a  squadron  of  United  States  warships  into  the  harbor 
of  Yokohama  in  185:t,  and  wrested  from  the  emperor  the  first  of  the 
treaties  opening  up  the  ports  of  the  country  to  foreign  commerce.  The 
war  with  China  in  1894  established  the  prestige  of  Japan  as  a  power 
among  modern  nations. 

QUESTIONS  ON  JAPAN. 

Why  is  Japan  called  the  "  Land  of  Sunrise"?  Where  is  it  located? 
Describe  its  natural  features.  What  is  the  climate  of  Japan?  What 
are  its  productions?  What  is  the  population  of  Japan?  What  is  the 
religion  of  the  people?  What  are  the  industries?  What  is  said  of  its 
foreign  trade?  Describe  the  government?  What  recent  changes  have 
taken  place  in  the  government?     What  is  the  capital  of  Japan? 

BALUCHISTAN. 

Baluchistan  is  the  general  name  given  to  a  country  on 
the  Indian  Ocean,  between  Afghanistan,  Persia,  and  British 
India.  It  has  an  area  of  about  130,000  square  miles.  The 
population  is  about  500,000. 

The  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  are  ruled 
by  the  Khan,  who  governs  under  the  direction  of  the  agent 
of  the  Governor-General  of  India. 

QUESTIONS  ON  BALUCHISTAN. 
Describe  Baluchistan.     How  is  the  country  governed?     What  is  the 
principal  industry? 

AFGHANISTAN. 

Afghanistan  is  a  mountainous  state 
on  the  northwestern  frontier  of  India. 
It  is  a  country  of  mountain  ranges,  nar- 
rowdefiles,  and  valleys  limited  in  extent. 
The  climate  is  noted  for  its  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold. 

The  population  is  estimated  at  about 
five  millions,  consisting  of  over  four 
hundred  different  tribes. 

The  chief  towns  are  Kabul,  the  capi- 
tal, Kandahar,  and  Herat. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

Afghanistan  has  always  been  in  an  unset- 
tled state,  and  the  various  tribes  are  more  or 
less  independent.  Afghanistan  was  invaded 
by  the  British  army  in  1838  to  settle  internal 
feuds,  but  in  1841  the  army  was  destroyed.  A 
retributive  force  was  then  sent  to  the  country, 
and  the  Afghans  fairly  subdued.  Being  a  bor- 
der state,  Afghanistan  is  of  great  importance  to 
Great  Britain  against  the  ambitious  Muscovite. 

QUESTIONS  ON  AFGHANISTAN. 

Describe  Afghanistan.  What  army  invaded 
the  country?  '  How  are  the  people  governed? 
Name  the  chief  cities. 


The  Indian  Empire. 


115 


THE  INDIAN  EMPIRE. 

The  Indian  Empire  includes  the  three  great  peninsulas 
of  southern  Asia,  with  large  territories  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  total  area  is  1,800,000  square 
miles,  while  the  population  is  288,000,000. 

INDIA. 

India  Proper,  or  Hindustan,  extends  from  the  Himalaya 
Mountains  to  Cape  Comorin,  and  from  the  Sulaiman  Moun- 
tains to  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  India  Proper  has 
an  area  of  1,250,000  square  miles. 

Coasts.  The  coasts  of  India  are  regular  and  unbroken,  deficient 
in  good  harbors,  and  so  exposed  and  surf- beaten  as  to  be,  in  many 
parts,  extremely  dangerous  to  approach.  The  length  of  coast  line  is 
about  3,000  miles.  Portions  of  the  coasts  have  special  names;  as,  the 
Orissa,  the  Golconda,  the  Coromandel,  and  the  Malabar  coasts. 

Islands.  The  principal  islands  are  Ceylon,  the  Laccadives  and 
Maldives,  and  the  Andaman  and  Nicobar  Islands.  Ceylon  has  an  area 
of  25,364  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  over  three  millions.  The 
interior  is  mountainous;  the  rivers  are  numerous,  and  there  are  exten- 
sive forests  of  valuable  woods.  The  elima.  i  is  salubrious,  and  the  nat- 
ural productions  are  tea,  coffee,  rice,  cinchona,  cinnamon,  and  tobacco. 

Mountains.  On  the  north  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  the  loftiest 
in  the  world,  the  exterior  ranges  of  which  rise  abruptly  from  the  Great 
Plain  of  Hindustan,  watered  by  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges.  The  high- 
lands of  central  and  southern  India  are  everywhere  seamed  by  irregular 
valleys  drained  by  numerous  rivers.    The  Himalaya  Mountains  extend 


The  Himalayas. 

for  1,500  miles  in  a  well-defined  line  along  the  northern  border  of  India. 
Mount  Everest,  29,002  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  highest  mountain  in 
the  world.  All  the  higher  parts  of  the  Himalayas  are  covered  with 
perpetual  snow. 

Plains.  The  Great  Plain  of  Northern  India  extends  across  the 
country  between  the  northern  table  -  land  and  the  Himalayas .  Its  south- 
eastern slope  is  drained  by  the  Ganges,  and  its  southwestern  slope  by 
the  Indus. 

Rivers.  The  rivers  are  divided  into  two  great  sections,  those  drain- 
ing the  southeastern  slope  flowing  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  those 
draining  the  southwestern  counter-slope  flowing  into  the  Arabian  Sea. 

The  Brahmaputra  rises  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas. 
It  is  1,680  miles  long,  and  in  its  lower  course  divides  into  several 
channels. 


Great  Banyan  Tree,  Calcutta. 

The  Ganges1  rises  in  the  southern  slope  of  the  Himalayas,  and, 
after  a  southerly  course  of  1,500  miles,  enters  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The 
Ganges  is  navigable  for  more  than  1,300  miles  above  its  mouth. 

The  Indus  rises  in  the  table-lands  of  Tibet,  and  has  a  course  of 
1,800  miles.  The  district  drained  by  the  Indus  and  its  tributaries  is 
called  the  Punjab.     The  Indus  is  navigable  900  miles  from  the  sea. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  India  is  hot,  except  in  the 
high  mountain  regions,  where  a  cool  temperature  results 
from  the  elevation  above  the  sea. 

Productions.  The  natural  productions  are  rich  and 
varied.  The  vegetable  products  are  of  high  value.  The 
animals  are  the  domestic  and  wild  elephant,  the  maneless 
lion,  the  tiger,  leopard,  wolf,  hyena,  rhinoceros,  buffalo, 
wild  ass,  deer  and  other  game,  and  monkeys,  as  well  as 
the  camel,  the  yak,  and  the  Kashmir  goat. 

Inhabitants.  Of  the  population  of  India,  which  amounts 
to  288,000,000,  upwards  of  220,000,000  are  under  direct 
British  control.  Six  sevenths  of  the  people  belong  to  the 
Hindu  race.  The  Hindus  are  followers  of  the  Hindu  trin- 
ity, of  which  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva  are  the  members. 

Education.  Education  is  making  some  progress,  and 
there  are  many  thousands  of  primary  schools,  a  large  num- 
ber of  secondary  schools,  and  colleges,  and  five  universities. 

Industries.  Agriculture  has  always  been  the  chief  in- 
dustry of  India,  but  there  are  important  native  manufac- 
tures of  fine  textile  fabrics  and  metal  wares.     The  mass  of 

1  The  work  done  by  the  Ganges,  as  the  water-carrier  and  the  fer- 
tilizer of  the  densely  populated  provinces  of  northern  India,  from  its 
source  in  the  Himalayas  to  its  mouth  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  entitles  it 
to  rank  as  the  foremost  river  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  fully 
excuses  the  affectionate  reverence  and  the  divine  honors  paid  to  it  by 
the  Hindus.  A  great  river  like  the  Ganges  has  three  distinct  stages 
in  its  life  from  its  source  to  the  sea.  In  the  first  stage  it  dashes  down 
the  mountain  sides,  cutting  out  for  itself  deep  gullies  in  the  solid  rock 
and  plowing  up  glens  and  ravines  upon  its  way.  The  second  stage  is 
where  it  emerges  from  the  mountains  on  to  the  plain,  running  then 
more  peaceably  along  the  valleys,  and  seeking  out  for  itself  the  lowest 
levels.  Here  it  receives  the  mud  and  drainage  of  the  country  around, 
absorbs  tributaries,  and  rolls  forward  with  an  ever- increasing  volume 
of  water  and  silt.  Finding  its  speed  checked  by  the  equal  level  of  the 
plains,  and  its  bed  raised  by  its  own  silt,  it  splits  out  into  channels 
like  a  jet  of  water  suddenly  obstructed  by  the  finger,  or  a  jar  of  liquid 
suddenly  dashed  upon  the  floor.  Each  of  the  channels  thus  formed 
throws  out,  in  turn,  its  own  channels  to  right  and  left.  In  the  case  of 
the  Ganges,  the  country  which  these  many  offshoots  inclose  forms  the 
delta  of  Bengal. 


116 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


the  population  live  mainly  upon  rice,  millet,  and  pulse,1 
and  these  are  extensively  cultivated.  The  culture  of  the 
poppy,  for  the  extraction  of  opium,  is  pursued  in  the  valley 
of  the  Ganges,  and  also  in  other  places.  Wheat  is  grown 
largely  for  export.  Tea  is  now  more  extensively  imported 
into  Great  Britain  from  India  than  from  China. 

Commerce.  The  trade  of  India  with  the  United  King- 
dom is  more  than  half  its  total  trade. 

Ports.  The  seven  great  ports  of  India  are  Bombay, 
Calcutta,  Rangoon,  Madras,  Kurrachee,  Tuticorin,  and 
Chittagong. 

Government.  Almost  the  whole  country  is  subject 
to  the  direct  rule  of  officers  appointed  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment. The  "tributary"  or  "feudatory"  states  are  all 
more  or  less  dependent  upon  British  power. 

Cities.  India  has  a  wealth  of  cities  famous  in  the  history  of  the 
country,  civil,  military,  and  religious.  Calcutta  is  the  capital  of  Brit- 
ish India.  It  stands  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  Hugli,  the  principal 
arm  of  the  Ganges,  about  one  hundred  miles  from  the  sea.  It  has  over 
one  million  inhabitants. 

Bombay  has  an  excellent  harbor,  one  of  the  best  in  India,  and  is 
rapidly  becoming  the  chief  commercial  center  of  the  empire.  It  was  one 
of  the  earliest  English  possessions  in  the  East,  having  been  part  of  the 
wedding  dowry  given  to  Charles  II.  with  his  Portuguese  bride,  Cath- 
erine of  Braganza,  in  1661. 

Allahabad,  at  the  junction  of  the  Jumna  and  Ganges,  and  Benares, 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ganges,  are  two  of  the  largest  inland  cities 
of  India,  and  are  among  the  sacred  cities  of  the  Hindus. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 

The  history  of  India  is  the  record  of  a  succession  of  waves  of  eon- 
quest,  and  almost  always  from  the  northwest.  The  first  Aryan  invaders 
are  said  to  have  enslaved  or  driven  out  the  aborigines,  but  the  earliest 
authentic  facts  come  from  the  Greek  historians,  who  tell  us,  that, 
while  there  was  a  general  unity  of  the  races  inhabiting  the  country, 
India  never  formed  a  solid  empire.  Alexander  the  Great  invaded  the 
country;  the  Mussulmans  kept  up  a  succession  of  inroads;  Tartar 
hordes  swept  over  India,  leaving  a  name  remembered  by  the  Hindus 
to  the  present  day.  The  year  1498  brought  Vasco  da  Gama,  the  Portu- 
guese navigator,  to  its  shores,  and  his  countrymen  retained  a  monopoly 
of  trade  for  more  than  a  century,  when  they  were  supplanted  by  the 
English  East  India  Company.  The  cession  of  Bombay  to  this  com- 
pany by  Charles  II.  led  to  further  settlements  by  the  English,  and  the 
nineteenth  century  has  witnessed  the  extension  of  British  rule  or  in- 
fluence over  all  India. 

QUESTIONS  ON  INDIA. 

Locate  the  Indian  Empire.  Give  the  other  name  of  India.  What 
are  the  natural  features  of  this  country?  For  what  are  the  Himalaya 
Mountains  noted?  Where  is  the  highest  mountain  in  the  world?  De- 
scribe the  Ganges.  Describe  the  climate  of  India;  its  animals;  the 
products.  To  what  race  do  the  people  belong?  Tell  what  you  can 
about  the  education  of  the  people.  Why  do  the  people  largely  abstain 
from  animal  food?  What  do  the  masses  of  the  people  live  upon?  What 
is  said  about  the  culture  of  the  poppy?  What  are  the  great  ports  of 
India?  What  is  its  capital?  Name  some  of  the  other  principal  cities 
of  India. 

1  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose,  as  is  commonly  the  case,  that  the  Hindus 
abstain  altogether  from  animal  food.  The  ox  is  sacred,  and  its  flesh 
is  never  touched,  and  the  flesh  of  swine  is  regarded  with  horror,  both 
by  the  Brahmin  and  the  Mohammedan.  But  mutton  is  eaten  without 
hesitation,  and  fish  is  largely  consumed,  whenever  it  is  cheaply  obtain- 
able. In  all  hot  countries,  however,  vegetable  diet  is  preferred  by  the 
mass  of  the  people.  The  Greenlander,  who  consumes  twelve  pounds 
of  meat  in  a  day,  and  the  Hindu,  whose  chief  nutriment  is  derived 
from  rice,  acts,  in  each  case,  upon  the  instinctive  impulses  that  are 
always  associated  with  climate  and  other  conditions  of  physical  geogra- 
phy.    (Hughes.) 


FARTHER  INDIA. 

Farther  India,  or  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula,  forms 
the  southeastern  division  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  With 
the  exception  of  Siam,  the  peninsula  is  divided  between 
Great  Britain  a*nd  France, —  the  British  on  the  west,  the 
French  on  the  east,  and  Siam  between.  The  total  area 
is  about  821,000  square  miles,  and  the  population  about 
35,000,000.     The  coasts  are  extensive,  with  fine  harbors. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  hot,  and  often  unhealthy.  The 
rains  are  abundant,  but  are  confined  to  a  brief  period  of  the 
year. 

Productions.  The  productions  are  valuable.  They  con- 
sist of  valuable  woods,  drugs,  spices,  and  gums.  The  min- 
eral wealth  is  considerable. 

Inhabitants.  The  Indo-Chinese  closely  resemble  the 
Chinese,  and  are  more  robust  than  the  Hindus.  The  lan- 
guage is  closely  allied  to  the  Chinese  and  Tibetan  tongues. 

Industries.  The  principal  are  the  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
indigo,  and  tobacco,  and  the  mulberry  for  the  silk-worm. 
Rice,  the  chief  article  of  food,  is  extensively  cultivated. 

BRITISH  INDO-CHINA. 

British  Indo-China  includes  Burma  ( Upper  and  Lower) ; 

the  Straits  Settlements  (so  called  from  their  position  on  the 

Strait  of  Malakka) ;   and  the  native  protected  states  of  the 

Malay  Peninsula. 

BURMA. 

Burma  is  politically  a  province  of  British  India,  and  in- 
cludes the  western  division  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula. 
The  area  is  about  230,000  square  miles,  and  the  population 
about  10,000,000. 

The  political  and  commercial  capital  is  Raugun,  in  Lower 
Burma;   Mandalay  is  the  chief  town  of  Upper  Burma. 

THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 

The  Straits  Settlements  are  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  which  is  divided  between  Siam  and  Great 
Britain,  and  include  Penang,  Wellesley  Province,  the  Din- 
dings,  Malakka,  and  Singapore.  They  have  an  area  of  1,500 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  600,000. 

Singapore  is  the  chief  town,  upon  an  island  of  the  same 
name,  27  miles  long  and  14  broad.  The  harbor  is  defended 
by  strong  batteries.  Malakka  is  the  oldest  of  the  Straits 
Settlements. 

SIAM. 

Siam  occupies  the  central  part  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Penin- 
sula. The  area  of  Siam  is  about  200,000  square  miles.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  6,000,000,  composed  of  Siamese, 
Chinese,  Malays,  and  other  races. 

The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy. 

The  capital  is  Bankok,  on  the  Menam  River,  about  20 
miles  from  the  sea. 

FRENCH  INDO-CHINA. 

French  Indo-China  is  the  eastern,  and  by  far  the  most 
populous,  part  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula.  It  includes 
the  colonies  of  Cochin  China  and  Tonkin,  and  the  protec- 
torates of  Cambodia  and  Anam.     The  total  area  is  about 


Farther  India. —  The  East  Indian  Archipelago. 


117 


270,000    square  miles,  and  the  population  is  estimated  at 
21,000,000. 

The  principal  towns  are  Saigon,  in  Cochin  China,  and 
Hue,  in  Tonkin. 

QUESTIONS  ON  FARTHER  INDIA. 
Describe  Farther  India.  What  is  said  of  the  climate?  The  pro- 
ductions? The  inhabitants?  The  industries?  Describe  British  Indo- 
China.  Name  the  capital  of  Lower  Burma.  Give  the  chief  city  of 
Upper  Burma.  What  is  meant  by  the  Straits  Settlements?  Give  the 
chief  towns.  Describe  Siam.  Name  the  capital.  Where  is  French 
Indo-China?     Give  the  principal  cities. 

THE  EAST  INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 

The  East  Indian  or  Malay  Archipelago  is  an  insular 
region  to  the  southeastward  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  The 
islands  of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Celebes,  Java,  the  Philippines, 
and  the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands,  are  included  in  this  re- 
gion. 

Productions.  The  natural  productions  are  rich  in  the 
extreme.  Gold,  tin,  and  precious  stones  in  the  mineral 
kingdom,  with  rich  fruits  and  spices  in  the  vegetable  world, 
form  the  principal  products  of  these  beautiful  islands. 
There  are  about  four  hundred  productive  tin  mines  in  the 
islands  of  Banca  and  Billiton.  The  tree  which  yields  gutta- 
percha is  a  native  of  Borneo.  The  nutmeg  and  the  clove 
belong  to  the  smaller  islands  of  the  Moluccas.  Sago  is  also 
produced,  and  sugar,  tobacco,  tea,  coffee,  and  rice  are  grown 
and  exported. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  the  archipelago  is  hot,  but 
the  intense  heat  of  the  torrid  zone  is  moderated  by  the  in- 
fluence of  the  surrounding  seas. 

Inhabitants.  The  entire  population  of  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago is  probably  not  less  than  forty  millions.  The  island 
of  Java  alone  has  over  twenty  millions,  and  the  Philippines 
contain  npwards  of  seven  millions 


Commerce.  The  Americans,  English,  Dutch,  and  Chi- 
nese are  extensively  engaged  in  trade. 

More  than  three  quarters  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago 
belong  to  Holland;  the  remainder  to  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  of  America,  with  the  exception  of  part  of  the 
island  of  Timor,  which  belongs  to  Portugal. 

THE  DUTCH  EAST  INDIES. 

The  Dutch  East  Indies  include  all  the  Larger  Sunda 
Islands,  with  the  exception  of  Borneo. 

The  total  area  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  is  736,000  square 
miles.     The  population  is  over  33,000,000. 

Java  is  about  <">0,000  square  miles  in  area,  and  a  chain  of 
lofty  volcanos  runs  through  the  entire  length  of  the  island. 
Java  is  probably  the  very  finest  and  most  interesting  trop- 
ical island  in  the  world,  and  is  undoubtedly  the  most  fer- 
tile, the  most  productive,  and  most  populous  of  the  tropical 
islands.  The  chief  port  is  Batavia.  Borneo,  the  fourth 
largest  island  in  the  world,  is  about  800  miles  in  length  and 
600  miles  in  width,  and  has  an  area  of  280,000  square  miles. 

THE  BRITISH  EAST  INDIES. 

The  British  East  Indies  include  the  richest  portion  of 
Borneo,  and  the  little  island  of  Labuan.  Labuan  is  a  crown 
colony ;  and  the  territory  of  the  British  North  Borneo  Com- 
pany, the  sultanate  of  Brunei,  and  the  province  of  Sarawak 
are  British  protectorates. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  EAST  INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 
Name  the  principal  islands  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  What 
are  the  productions  of  the  mineral  kingdom  in  these  islands?  Of  the 
vegetable  world  ?  Describe  the  climate.  What  is  the  population  ?  To 
what  countries  do  the  islands  of  the  archipelago,  belong?  What  do 
the  Dutch  East  Indies  include?  What  is  the  population?  What  is 
said  of  Java?  Name  the  chief  ports  of  Java.  What  is  said  about 
Borneo?  Of  what  are  the  British  East  Indies  composed?  How  are 
they  governed? 


SEARCH  QUESTIONS. 


Location.  Find  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.  North  Cape.  Find  the 
latitude  and  longitude  of  London.  Tokyo.  Boston.  Seattle.  Are 
these  cities  in  nearly  the  same  latitude?  Name  five  of  the  principal 
colonies  of  the  British  Empire.  Which  is  the  smallest  country  in 
Europe?     From  the  map,  find  the  largest  continent  on  the  globe. 

Rivers.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  Europe  and  Asia,  forming  Eura- 
sia, and  locate  ten  of  the  principal  rivers. 
Find  the  three  great  rivers  of  Siberia.  Make 
a  list  of  ten  navigable  rivers  of  Europe.  Lo- 
cate the  Rhine.  The  Tiber.  The  Thames. 
The  Seine. 

Population.  What  country  in  Europe 
has  the  densest  population?  Compare  the 
population  and  the  area  of  Great  Britain  with 
the  state  of  Washington.  Give  the  population 
of  Russia,  the  British  Empire,  the  Chinese 
Empire,  Germany,  France,  and  Spain.  In 
what  respect  do  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  differ 
in  personal  appearance  from  the  people  of 
Great  Britain?  Where  do  the  people  live 
who  use  the  dog  for  draft  purposes,  where  we 
use  the  horse? 

Natural  Productions.  Compare  the  nat- 
ural products  of  Asia  with  the  natural  pro- 


Railroad  Map  of  Europe 


ducts  of  France.  Compare  the  products  of  the  northern  coast  of  Eurasia 
with  those  of  the  southern  coast.  Compare  the  principal  products  of 
Ceylon,  south  of  India,  with  the  products  of  Iceland,  north  of  the 
British  Isles.  What  countries  in  Europe  produce  about  the  same 
products  as  the  United  States? 

Industries.  From  where  do  we  get  the  finest  marble  in  the 
world?  What  country  is-noted  especially  for 
its  manufacture  of  silk?  Name  the  principal 
ship-buildingplacesof  the  world.  What  cities 
are  noted  for  the  production  of  fine  carpets  and 
laces  ?  What  place  in  Europe  is  noted  for  fine 
glassware?  Name  the  principal  parts  of  the 
world  noted  for  the  production  of  petroleum. 
Commerce.  Name  ten  of  the  great  com- 
mercial ports  of  the  world.  Give  several  of 
the  most  important  exports  shipped  from  each. 
Tell  how  railroads,  canals,  and  oceans  aid  com- 
merce. What  countries  are  noted  for  canals? 
What  great  city  in  America  has  recently  ex- 
tended its  commercial  facilities  by  means  of 
a  canal?  What  great  railroad  is  now  under 
construction  in  the  northern  part  of  Eurasia? 
What  port  in  the  United  States  is  the  nearest 
to  its  eastern  terminus? 


30  Longitude      20  "West  10 


10        Longitude       20  East  30  from  <o       Greenwich       50 


AFRICA. 


Africa1  is  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  Old  World, 
and  is  the  only  one  of  its  three  continents  that  stretches  to 
the  southward  of  the  equator. 

This  continent  forms  a  vast  peninsula,  connected  with 
the  Asiatic  continent  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 


a  narrow,  low-lying  coast  belt,  and  edged  by  ranges  of 
mountains  or  hills.  The  elevation  of  this  large  inland  pla- 
teau declines  from  about  4,000  feet  in  the  south  to  less  than 
1,500  feet  in  the  north. 

Mountains.  The  loftiest  mountains  in  Africa  are  Kili- 
manjaro (19,680  feet  high) ,  a  little  to  the  south  of  the  equa- 
tor; Kenia,  18,000  feet  high,  on  the  equator.  The  Atlas 
Mountains,  in  the  north,  are  important.  There  are  lofty 
mountains  in  Abyssinia  and  elsewhere  in  the  continent. 

Rivers.  Africa  is  noted  for  the  absence  of  permanently 
flowing  rivers.  There  are,  in  Africa,  two  river  systems, — 
those  of  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans.  The  others  are 
continental  rivers,  and  belong  to  the  regions  of  inland 
drainage. 

The  Nile  has  a  course  of  3,500  miles,  and  is  the  most  important. 

The  Senegal,  Niger,  Kongo,  Zambezi,  Limpopo,  and  the  Tugela  are 
all  large  rivers. 

Lakes.  Africa  contains  some  of  the  largest  fresh-water 
lakes  in  the  world. 

The  Victoria  Nyanza  is  second  in  size  only  to  Lake  Superior. 

Lake  Tanganyeka  is  400  miles  in  length  and  about  50  in  breadth. 

Lake  Nyassa,  350  miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  38  miles, 
has  a  mean  depth  of  600  feet. 

Productions.  The  natural  productions  of  Africa  are 
almost  as  rich  and  as  varied  as  those  of  any  other  con- 
tinent. Peculiar  plants  are  numerous,  while  animals  are 
of  great  variety.     Only  in  the  south  are  minerals  plentiful. 

QUESTIONS  ON  AFRICA. 

Locate  Africa.  What  is  the  form  of  this  eontinentf  How  is  it 
bounded?  What  is  the  area  of  Africa?  How  does  it  compare  in  size 
with  Europe?  With  Asia?  What  is  the  length  of  Africa  ?  The  breadth? 
Describe  the  surface  of  Africa.  What  are  the  loftiest  mountains  of 
Africa?  What  are  the  principal  rivers?  Name  the  largest  lakes.  Is 
Africa  rich  in  natural  productions?  What  about  African  plants?  Are 
there  many  varieties  of  animals  in  Africa?  Which  part  of  Africa  has 
the  greatest  quantity  of  minerals? 


Outline  Map  of  Africa. 

Boundaries.  Africa  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea;  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  on 
the  south  by  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans;  and  on  the  east 
by  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean. 

Extent.  Africa  is  more  than  three  times  larger  than 
Europe,  but  nearly  a  third  smaller  than  the  Asiatic  conti- 
nent. Its  area  is  about  twelve  million  square  miles.  The 
extreme  points  of  the  continent  are:  Cape  Blanco  on  the 
north,  Cape  Agulhas  on  the  south, — a  distance  of  5,000 
miles ;  and  Cape  Verde  on  the  west,  Cape  Guardafui  on  the 
east, —  a  distance  of  4,850  miles. 

Surface.  The  entire  continent  of  Africa  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  vast  plateau  of  moderate  elevation,  inclosed  by 

1  The  name  "Africa  "  was  given  by  the  Romans  to  the  Carthaginian 
territories  (Tunis,  etc.),  and  was  extended  to  the  whole  continent. 

/ll9 


*~*<f:a 


The  Nile  Delta  and  the  Suez  Canal. 


120. 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 

The  Barbary  States'  include  the  empire  of  Morocco, 
the  French  colony  of  Algeria,  the  French  protectorate  of 
Tunis,  and  the  Turkish  province  of  Tripoli. 

The  inhabitants  include  the  Berbers,  who  live  in  the 
mountains  and  villages  of  the  Atlas  region;  the  Moors, 
who  live  in  the  cities;  and  the  Arabs,  who  live  in  their  own 
encampments  in  the  interior.  Negroes,  Jews,  as  well  as 
French,  Spaniards,  Italians,  and  Maltese,  are  found  in  num- 
bers in  Algeria  and  Tunis. 

The  natives  of  northern  Africa  are  generally  Moham- 
medans in  religion,  and  in  manners  and  usages  are  but  a 
degree  removed  from  barbarism. 

Northern  Africa,  like  western  Asia,  exhibits  traces  of 
decay  from  a  past  condition  of  greatness  and  prosperity. 
The  frequent  remains  of  Roman  roads,  temples,  and  thea- 
ters bear  testimony  to  the  greatness  of  Roman  power.  Near 
Tunis  are  the  remains  of  Carthage,  once  the  rival  of  Rome. 
Farther  to  the  eastward  are  the  ruins  of  Greek  cities. 

MOROCCO. 

Morocco,  the  most  westerly  of  the  Barbary  States,  has 
an  area  of  about  314,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
from  five  million  to  eight  million  people. 

The  form  of  government  is  an  absolute  despotism,  but 
some  tribes  recognize  only  the  authority  of  their  own  chiefs. 

The  fertile  coast  region  is  peopled  by  the  Moors,  who 
conquered  the  country  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  century. 

The  vegetable  productions  are  wheat,  barley,  corn,  and 
fruits.  The  principal  exports  are  almonds  and  wool.  Mo- 
rocco leather  is  manufactured  at  Mekinez. 

1  So  called  from  the  Berbers,  the  original,  or  at  any  rate  the  earliest 
known,  inhabitants  of  northern  Africa. 


City  of  Tangier. 


Fez  is  the  chief  capital  of  the  empire,  but  the  Sultan  also  resides 
at  the  cities  of  Morocco  and  Mekinez. 

Tangier  is  at  the  entrance  to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  is  an  im- 
portant city.  The  fortress  of  Oeuta,  opposite  Gibraltar,  is  occupied 
by  the  Spaniards. 

QUESTIONS  ON  MOROCCO. 

Describe  Morocco.  What  are  the  vegetable  products?  Where  is 
morocco  leather  manufactured?  What  is  the  capital  of  Morocco? 
Where  is  Ceuta? 

ALGERIA. 

Algeria  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  colonial  posses- 
sions of  France.  It  has  an  area  of  123,000  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  four  million  people. 

About  a  twenty-fifth  part  of  Algeria  is  cultivated.  Wheat 
and  wine  are  produced.  The  principal  article  of  export  is 
the  "  alfa,"  or  esparto  grass,  used  for  making  paper.  Iron, 
lead,  and  copper  are  also  largely  exported. 

The  chief  towns  of  Algeria  are  Algiers,  Oran,  Bona,  and  Constan- 
tino. Algiers,  the  capital  of  Algeria,  rises  in  the  form  of  an  amphi- 
theater, along  the  slope  of  a  steep  hill  on  the  Mediterranean  coast.  A 
railway  connects  Algiers  with  the  port  of  Oran,. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ALGERIA. 

Locate  Algeria.  What  are  the  principal  towns  of  Algeria?  Locate 
Tunis.     Where  is  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Carthagef 

TUNIS. 

Tunis  is  physically  like  Algeria,  and  politically  is  con- 
trolled by  the  French  Foreign  Office.  Its  area  is  about 
45,000  square  miles.  It  has  a  population  of  about  a  million 
and  a  half.     Wheat,  olive  oil,  and  barley  are  the  exports. 

Tunis,  the  capital,  is  connected  by  rail  with  its  port,  Goletta.  It 
has  a  population  of  145,000,  of  whom  30,000  are  Jews.  Thirteen 
miles  northeast  of  Tunis  is  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Carthage. 

QUESTIONS  ON  TUNIS. 

Locate  Tunis.  By  whom  is  it  governed?  What  is  the  population? 
What  are  the  products?     Name  the  capital. 

TRIPOLI. 

Tripoli,  or  Tripolis  ("the  three 
cities,"  from  the  three  ancient  towns 
of  Sabrata,  Oea,  and  Leptis  Major), 
covers  an  area  of  half  a  million  square 
miles,  a  great  part  of  which  is  barren 
desert.   The  population  is  one  million. 

The  productions  include  tobacco, 
fruits,  cotton,  grain,  etc. 

FEZZAN. 

The  large  territory  of  Fezzan,  lying  to 
the  south  of  Tripoli,  is  a  kind  of  oasis,  and 
is  fertile  by  comparison  with  the  desert  re- 
gion by  which  it  is  bounded  on  all  sides. 

BARCA. 

Baeca,  east  of  Tripoli,  is  a  rocky  pla- 
teau, with  some  well- watered,  fertile  valleys. 

Tripoli  is  a  province  of  Turkey. 
Fezzan  is  ruled  by  a  subordinate  gov- 
ernor. Barca,  once  a  distinct  prov- 
ince, is  now  a  part  of  Tripoli. 

QUESTIONS  ON  TRIPOLI. 

What  is  meant  by  the  name  "  Tripoli"? 
Locate  Tripoli.  What  are  the  products? 
Where  is  the  territory  of  Fezzan  ?   Of  Barca  f 


Egypt. 


121 


EGYPT. 

Egypt  is  the  lower  portion  of  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  extending  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  to  Akashe,  a  direct 
distance  of  750  miles. 

Extent.  The  area  of  Egypt  is  es- 
timated at  about  400,000  square  miles. 
Including  the  oases  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  the  northern  por- 
tion of  Nubia,  part  of  the  Red  Sea  coast,  the  Sinai  Penin- 
sula, and  the  Land  of  Midian  in  Arabia,  the  area  is  not  less 
than  a  half-million  square  miles;  but  these  regions  afford 
little  more  than  pasturage. 

Natural  Features.  Two  great  natural  features  are  the 
Nile  and  the  Desert.  The  Nile  overflows  its  banks  annu- 
ally, the  river  beginning  to  rise  above  its  ordinary  level  in 
the  month  of  June,  and  rises  daily  until  the  latter  part  of 
September,  at  which  time  almost  the  whole  valley  is  under 
water.  The  waters  afterwards  gradually  retire  within  their 
proper  bed,  leaving  behind  them  a  fertilizing  deposit,  which 
produces  the  abundant  harvests  of  Egypt.  The  rise  of  the 
Nile  is  caused  by  the  heavy  rains  of  Abyssinia  and  the  high- 
land regions  to  the  southward.  The  Nile  divides  into  two 
branches  about  120  miles  from  the  sea, 
and  these  are  called  the  Rosetta  and 
Damietta  branches.  The  two  branches 
inclose  a  delta.1 

Climate.  Egypt  has  a  warm  and 
dry  climate.  Except  in  the  delta,  rain 
seldom  falls.  The  intense  dryness  of 
the  air  has  been  the  means  of  preserv- 
ing from  decay  the  monuments  of  an- 
cient art  in  which  Egypt  abounds. 

Inhabitants.  Egypt  has  seven 
million  inhabitants,  the  majority  of 
whom  are  of  the  Arabic  race.  The 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
are  about  half  a  million  in  number. 
There  are  Turks,  Armenians,  Syrians, 
Jews,  and  Europeans  in  the  towns. 
The  foreigners  in  Egypt  number  one 
hundred  thousand. 

Religion.    The  Egyptians  are  gen- 
erally Mohammedans,   except   in  the 
case  of  the  Copts,  the  descendants  of 
the  ancient   Egyptians,  who   form  a        '  ■-, 
Christian  Church. 

Industries.   The  products  are  flax, 
hemp,  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar,  coffee, 
saffron,  mulberries,  dates,  wheat,  and  corn.      The  cotton 
and  surplus  corn  of  Egypt  are  sent  to  England. 

Commerce.  The  trade  of  Egypt,  both  foreign  and  in- 
ternal, has  greatly  increased  since  the  opening  of  the  Suez 

1  It  was  to  the  region  inclosed  between  the  different  arras  of  the 
Nile  that  the  term  "delta"  was  originally  applied  by  the  Greeks,  in 
eonseqrenee  of  its  forming  a  shape  resembling  the  fourth  letter  of  the 
Greek  alphabet.  It  has  become  extended,  in  modern  geography,  to 
all  similar  tracts  of  land.  The  Danube,  the  Rhine,  the  Amazon,  the 
Indus,  and  a  great  number  of  other  rivers,  form  deltas. 


Canal,1  which  is  the  great  highway  between  Europe  and  the 
East. 

Government.  Egypt  is  nominally  a  dependency  of 
Turkey,  but  the  government  of  Egypt  is  carried  on  under  the 
direct  control  of  England,  and  the  country  is  occupied  by 
British  troops.  Egypt  has  advanced  greatly  in  wealth  and 
prosperity  under  the  British  occupation. 

Towns.  Cairo  is  an  important  center  of  traffic  between  the  east 
and  the  west.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  Arabic  conquerors  of  Europe, 
by  whom  it  was  founded  in  the  year  970. 

Alexandria,  named  in  honor  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  founded 
it  in  the  year  332  B.  C,  was  for  a  long  time  the  chief  center  of  Greek 
learning.  Since  the  British  occupation,  it  has  become  of  importance 
as  the  center  of  the  trade  of  Egypt  with  foreign  countries. 

Rosetta,  celebrated  as  the  place  of  discovery  of  the  "Rosetta 
Stone,"  which  enabled  students  to  decipher  the  writing  on  the  monu- 
ments and  temples  of  ancient  Egypt,  is  on  the  western  side  of  the  Nile. 

Suez,  on  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea,  is  an  im- 
portant city. 

Port  Said  is  the  northern  terminus  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

Antiquities.  The  Pyramids  of  Ghizeh  and  the  ruins  of  Thebes 
("the  hundred -gated")  are  two  localities  of  great  interest.  The 
Pyramids  are  within  a  few  miles'  distance  of  Cairo,  and  the  colossal 
figure  of  the  Sphinx  is  in  that  neighborhood.  The  ruins  of  Thebes 
are  in  a  higher  part  of  the  Nile  valley,  within  Upper  Egypt. 


Cairo. 

The  Libyan  Desert,  to  the  westward  of  the  Nile,  contains  several 
oases,  which  are  regarded  as  forming  a  part  of  Egypt.  The  Oasis  of 
Siwah  contains  a  celebrated  fountain,  the  supposed  "  Fountain  of  the 

1  Since  1887,  vessels  of  all  nations,  whether  armed  or  not,  may  pass 
through  the  canal,  in  peace  or  war.  Nearly  four  thousand  vessels  of 
all  classes  make  the  passage  every  year.  Work  on  the  canal  was  com- 
menced in  1859,  and  was  finished  in  1869.  The  total  length,  from  Port 
Said,  on  the  Mediterranean,  to  Suez,  at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea,  is  87 
miles, —  66  miles  of  actual  canal  and  21  miles  of  lakes.  By  the  use  of 
electric  light,  vessels  can  now  pass  through  it  by  night  as  well  as  by 
day.  The  harbor  at  Port  Said  is  artificially  formed.  The  entire  cost 
of  the  canal  was  over  one  hundred  million  dollars. 


122 

r 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Port  Said. 

Sun,"  and  the  ancient   temple   of  Jupiter  Ammon,  which  Alexander 
the  Great  visited. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. 
Egypt  was  the  seat  of  the  earliest  civilization.  The  Pyramids  were 
built  in  the  twenty-fifth  century  B.  C.  The  Persians  conquered  the 
country  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  Alexander  the  Great  made  it  a 
part  of  his  empire  and  founded  the  city  of  Alexandria.  In  the  first 
century  B.  C,  Egypt  passed  under  Roman  rule,  and  after  the  lapse  of 
six  centuries,  the  Arabs  conquered  the  country.  The  Arabs  were  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Turks.  In  1882  a  military  rebellion,  headed  by  Arabi 
Pasha,  broke  out,  and  after  its  suppression  by  British  troops  the  Eng- 
lish remained  in  occupation. 

QUESTIONS  ON  EGYPT. 

Locate  Egypt.  What  are  the  natural  features  of  Egypt?  Describe 
the  Nile.  Where  did  the  term  "delta"  originate?  What  does  the 
word  mean?  What  is  the  climate  of  Egypt?  Describe  the  inhabitants. 
What  religion  do  the  Egyptians  follow?  What  are  the  products  of  the 
country?  Describe  the  trade  of  Egypt.  Describe  the  Suez  Canal. 
What  country  controls  the  canal?  What  is  'the  government  of  Egypt? 
Describe  Cairo;  Alexandria.  For  what  is  Rosetta  noted?  Describe 
the  Pyramids. 

THE  EASTERN  SUDAN. 

The  Eastern  Sudan  includes  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
from  the  great  lakes  to  the  Egyptian  frontier,  and  the  ter- 
ritorial divisions  of  Kordofau  and  Darfur.  This  vast  terri- 
tory, which  is  now  virtually  under  British  control,  has  an 
area  of  about  one  million  square  miles. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  more  tropical  than  that  of 
Egypt,  and  the  vegetafcjxm  greatly  resembles  that  of  the. 
torrid  zone. 

Natural  Features.  The  great  features  of  this  region 
are  the  Nile  Valley  and  the  Desert.  The  two  branches  of 
the  Nile  are  known  as  the  Blue  Nile  and  the  White  Nile. 
On  the  southern  frontier  are  the  great  lakes  of  the  Nile,  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  and  the  Albert  Nyanza. 

Inhabitants.  This  vast  territory  has  about  ten  mil- 
lions of  people,  consisting  of  Arabs  and  various  negro 
tribes. 

Commerce.  The  commerce  of  the  Eastern  Sudan  is 
confined  to  transit  trade,  carried  on  by  camel  caravans.  The 
exports  of  ivory  are  valuable. 


Towns.  Khartum,  in  Upper  Nubia,  situated  at  the  junction  of 
the  Blue  and  the  White  Niles,  was  formerly  the  center  of  authority 
for  the  whole  country.  It  will  be  forever  famous  for  its  heroic  defense 
by  General  Gordon,  and  as  the  scene  of  his  tragic  death. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Nile  is  the  fortified  town  of  Omdurman, 
which  is  the  capital  of  the  Eastern  Sudan,  and  is  noted  for  the  great 
battle  in  which  General  Kitchener  overcame  the  Khalifa  in  1898. 

New  Dongola,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  is  one  of  the  most 
thriving  of  the  Nubian  towns. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  EASTERN  SUDAN. 
What  is  meant  by  the  Eastern  Sudan?     It  is  under  whose  control? 
Describe  the    inhabitants.      How  is  the  commerce  of  this  section  of 
country  carried  on?     What  noted  town  is  located  in  Upper  Nubia? 
Where  is  Omdurman?  and  for  what  is  it  noted? 

ABYSSINIA. 

Abyssinia  is  the  loftiest  of  all  the  plateau-lands  of  Africa. 
Some  of  the  mountains  reach  15,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

Climate/  The  climate  of  Abyssinia  is  intensely  hot  in 
the  lower  part,  but  temperate  and  healthy  in  the  upland 
plains  of  the  interior. 

Productions.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  cotton,  sugar, 
coffee,  etc.,  are  produced  in  the  lower  valleys.  On  the 
higher  grounds  the  various  kinds  of  grain  and  fruits  are 
extensively  grown,  and  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared. 

Inhabitants.  Abyssinia  Proper  is  estimated  to  have 
an  area  of  130,000  square  miles,  and  a  mixed  population  of 
nearly  four  millions. 

Government.  The  ancient  empire  of  Abyssinia,  or 
Ethiopia,  was  formerly  a  powerful  state,  governed  from  the 
earliest  times  by  an  absolute  ruler,  styled  the  Negus  Ne- 
gusti,  or  "King  of  Kings."  The  country  is  divided  into 
three  great  provinces:  Tigre,  in  the  north;  Amhara,  in  the 
center;  and  Shoa,  in  the  south.  Gondar  is  the  capital  of 
Amhara,  and  Adowa  the  capital  of  Tigre.  A  noted  town 
is  the  city  of  Axum,  the  "City  of  Abraham,"  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Ethiopian  empire,  and  still  the  crowded  resort 
of  priests  and  pilgrims.     Licheh  is  the  capital  of  Shoa. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ABYSSINIA. 

Locate  Abyssinia.  What  is  the  climate?  Describe  the  soil.  What 
is  the  form  of  government?  Name  several  of  the  important  towns. 
Describe  the  "  City  of  Abraham." 

THE  SAHARA. 

The  immense  region  of  northern  Africa  to  which  the 
name  Sahara  is  applied,  extends  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
to  the  Red  Sea. 

This  great  desert  region  has  an  area  of  over  three  mil- 
lion square  miles,  and  a  population  of  not  over  three  mil- 
lions of  people,  pastoral  nomads  and  robbers.  Dates,  salt, 
ostrich  feathers,  gold-dust,  and  slaves  are  the  only  com- 
mercial products  of  this  vast  region. 

THE  SUDAN. 

The  name  "Blad  es  Sudan, "  or  ' 'Country  of  the  Blacks, ' ' 
of  the  old  Arabic  geographers  was  applied  to  the  vast 
region  to  the  south  of  the  Sahara,  and  the  term  is  still 


The  Sudan.  —  Southern  Africa. 


123 


used  to  indicate  the  belt  of  fertile  and  well-watered  coun- 
tries which  lie  within  the  zone  of  tropical  rains,  and  form  a 
startling  contrast,  to  the  desert. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Sudan  are  not  exclusively  of  the 
negro  race.  A  large  proportion  are  of  mixed  descent.  The 
slave  trade  has  always  been  the  bane  of  the  negro  popula- 
tion of  Africa. 

The  commercial  products,  beside  slaves,  are  gold-dust, 
ivory,  and  ostrich  feathers. 

The  three  great,  divisions  of  the  Sudan  are  the  Eastern 
Sudan,  the  Central  Sudan,  and  the  Western  Sudan. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Central  Sudan  the  negroes  have  at- 
tained some  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  woven  fabrics, copper, 
and  metal  ware.  In  other  parts,  rice  and  other  cereals,  and 
dates  and  honey,  are  exported.  There  are  also  manufactures 
of  excellent  leather  goods,  shoes,  sandals,  harness,  etc. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  SAHARA  AND  THE  SUDAN. 
Describe  the  Sahara  Desert.    What  are  the  products  of  the  Sahara? 
What  is  the  meaning  of  the  name  "Sudan"?     Who  are  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Sudan?     What  is  said  about  the  slave  trade?     What  are 
the  productions  of  the  Sudan? 

WESTERN  AFRICA. 

The  western  coasts  of  Africa,  within  the  tropics,  are  a 
distinct  natural  region,  extending  through  a  range  of  be- 
tween three  thousand  and  four  thousand  miles  along  the  At- 
lantic seaboard,  from  the  borders  of  the  Great  Desert,  iu  a 
northerly  direction,  to  Cape  Frio,  south  of  the  equator. 

Owing  to  its  position,  and  to  its  numerous  rivers  and 
streams,  Western  Africa  has  an  unhealthy  climate.  The 
intense  heat  of  a  tropical  sun,  acting  on  the  mass  of  vege- 
table matter,  produces  malaria  and  deadly  fevers. 

The  products  are  gold-dust,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  palm 
oil,  beeswax,  and  various  gums. 

The  native  inhabitants  of  Western  Africa  are  nearly  all 
negroes.     Many  Europeans  are  settled  at  various  points. 

The  divisions  of  Western  Africa  are  Senegambia,  Upper 
Gambia,  and  Lower  Gambia. 

The  political  divisions  of  Western  Africa  include  the  col- 
onies and  protectorates  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  France, 
Portugal,  Germany,  and  Spain,  and  two  independent  states, 
—  the  republic  of  Liberia  and  the  Kongo  Free  State. 

LIBERIA. 

The  negro  republic  of  Liberia  was  founded  in  1822  as 
a  place  of  refuge  for  freed  slaves.  The  capital  is  Monrovia. 
The  commercial  products  are  coffee,  palm  oil,  palm  nuts, 
cocoa,  sugar,  arrowroot,  ivory,  and  hides. 

THE  KONGO  FREE  STATE. 

The  Kongo  Free  State,  founded  in  1855,  has  an  area 
of  about  800,000  square  miles,  and  includes  the  greater  part 
of  the  basin  of  the  Kongo  River.  The  population  is  between 
ten  millions  and  twenty  millions. 

The  government  of  the  Kongo  Free  State  is  carried  on 
by  the  Central  Government  at  Brussels,  directed  by  the 
Kins:  of  Belgium  as  the  sovereign  of  the  state,  and  by  the 
local  government  at  Boma,  under  a  governor- general. 


QUESTIONS  ON  WESTERN  AFRICA. 

What  is  said  about  the  climate  of  Western  Africa?  What  are  its 
products?  Describe  the  inhabitants.  Where  is  Liberia?  What  is  its 
capital?  What  are  the  products?  Describe  the  Kongo  Free  State. 
When  was  it  founded?     Who  is  the  sovereign? 

EASTERN  AFRICA. 

Eastern  Africa  includes  the  coast-lands  from  Delagoa 
Bay  to  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  together  with  the  uplands  to  the 
east  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  whole  of  Eastern  Africa  is  now  partitioned  among 
four  European  powers, —  Portugal,  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
and  Italy.     The  islands  have  also  been  parceled  out. 

PORTUGUESE  EAST  AFRICA. 

Portuguese  East  Africa  includes  the  coast  province  of 
Mozambique,  and  a  limited  portion  of  Zambezia. 

Mozambique,  the  principal  place  in  Portuguese  East 
Africa,  is  a  busy  seaport  on  a  corajl  islet  close  to  the  shore. 

GERMAN  EAST  AFRICA. 

German  East  Africa  extends  along  the  coast  to  the 
north  of  the  Rovuma  River,  and  stretches  westward  to  the 
lakes  of  Nyassa  and  Tanganyika,  and  northward  to  the 
Victoria  Nyauza  and  Mount  Kilimanjaro. 

The  total  area  of  this  vast  territory  is  estimated  at  350, 
000  square  miles,  a  third  larger  than  Germany  itself. 

The  population  does  not  exceed  two  millions. 

BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 

British  East  Africa  extends  along  the  coast  from  the 
Umba  River  in  the  south  to  the  Juba  River  in  the  north,  a 
distance  of  400  miles.  Inland,  the  British  "sphere  of  in- 
fluence" extends  westward  beyond  the  Victoria  and  the 
Albert  Nyaiizas  to  the  borders  of  the  Kongo  Free  State. 

Zanzibar  is  an  island  with  an  area  of  625  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  125,000.  The  town  of  Zanzibar  is  a 
free  port,  and  has  a  population  of  100,000.  It  is  an  active 
center  of  trade  in  the  products  of  the  island  and  those  of 
the  adjoining  mainland. 

ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA 

Italian  East  Africa  is  the  territory  on  the  Somali  Coast 
from  the  Juba  River  northward  round  to  Cape  Guardafui, 
and  along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden  to  the  49th  degree 
of  east  longitude,  and  the  Red  Sea  coast  from  Ras  Kasar  to 
the  Strait  of  Babel  Mandeb,  together  with  portions  of  the 
region  to  the  east  of  Abyssinia  and  the  Juba  River. 

QUESTIONS  ON  EASTERN  AFRICA. 

'    Describe  Eastern  Africa.     To  what  countries  does  Eastern  Africa 

belong?    Describe  its  products.    Describe  German  East  Africa;  British 

East  Africa.     Where  is  the  island  of  Zanzibar?     What  can  you  tell 

about  the  town  of  Zanzibar?     Describe  Italian  East  Africa. 

SOUTHERN  AFRICA. 

The  southern  part  of  the  African  continent  includes  sev- 
eral territories  under  British  rule,  and  two  independent 
Dutch  republics,  together  with  the  vast  territory  of  German 
Southwest  Africa. 


124 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICA. 

British  South  Africa  includes  the  self-governing  colony 
of  the  Cape, — the  wealthiest  and  most  important  of  all  South 
Africa, —  the  colony  of  Natal,  the  crown  colonies  of  Basu- 
toland,  British  Bechuanaland,  and  Znluland,  and  the  pro- 
tectorates of  Tongaland,  Bechuanaland,  and  Zambezia. 

THE  CAPE  COLONY. 

The  Cape  Colony  derives  its  name  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.1     It  has  an  area  of  233,430  square  miles. 

Natural  Features.  The  surface  of  the  colony  rises  from  the  sea- 
board to  the  interior  by  a  series  of  terraces,  or  steps,  the  seaward 
edges  of  which  are  marked  by  the  long  ranges  of  mountains  and  hills 
that  extend  across  the  country  from  west  to  east. 

Mountains.  The  Nieuwveldt  Mountains  are  the  loftiest  elevation 
in  Southern  Africa,  and  the  highest  point  is  Compass  Berg,  9,000  feet 
above  the  sea. 

Plains.  The  lower  plains  near  the  coast  are  watered  and  mode- 
rately fertile.  The  great  plain  that  extends  along  the  southern  base 
of  the  Nieuwveldt  Mountains  has  an  arid  and  gravelly  surface.  The 
northerly  portion  of  the  province  consists  of  extensive  open  plains, 
scantily  watered. 

Rivers.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Orange  and  the  Olifants, 
flowing  into  the  Atlantic ;  and  the  Breede,  Gauritz,  Gamtoos,  Great 
Fish,  Keiskamma,  and  the  Kei,  flowing  into  the  Indian  Ocean. 

The  Orange  Kiver,  which  forms  the  northern  border  of  Cape  Colony, 
is  about  1,200  miles  long,  but  it  has  comparatively  little  volume  of 
water,  and  is  not  navigable,  except  for  small  craft  for  about  fifty  miles 
above  the  bar  at  its  mouth. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  the  Cape  is  temperate,  dry, 
and  healthy.     In  the  eastern  provinces  rains  fall  in  summer, 

1  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  important,  both  from  its  geographical 
position  and  from  its  place  in  the  annals  of  discovery.  It  was  discov- 
ered in  1487  by  Diaz,  a  Portuguese  sailor,  toward  the  close  of  a  century 
which  had  been  devoted  to  discoveries  along  the  western  side  of  the 
African  continent.  Diaz  succeeded  in  doubling  the  cape  on  this  voy- 
age, and  landed  on  the  coast  at  some  distance  beyond.  Ten  years 
later,  in  1497,  Vasco  da  Gama,  also  a  Portuguese,  conducted  the  first 
fleet  of  ships  to  India  by  way  of  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans. 


Cape  Town  and  Vicinity. 


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General  View  of  Ladysmith,  Natal. 


but  in  the  western  in 
winter.  At  Cape  Town 
the  rainfall  amounts  to 
30  inches,  and  at  Kim- 
berley  to  16  inches. 

Productions.  The 

extensive  open  plains 
of  the  interior  are  suited 
for  pastoral  pursuits. 
Sheep,  goats,  cattle,  and 
horses  supply  the  wool, 
mohair,  skins,  and 
hides,  which,  with  dia- 
monds, copper,  and  ostrich  feathers,  form  the  staple  pro- 
ducts. The  colony  produces  excellent  wheat  and  other 
cereals,  with  oranges  and  other  fruits.  The  chief  mineral 
products  are  diamonds  from  the  famous  Kimberley  mines. 

Inhabitants.  The  Cape  Colony 
contains  about  one  and  a  half  mil- 
lion inhabitants,  a  third  of  whom 
are  of  European  origin,  mainly 
Dutch,  British,  and  German. 

Industries.  Diamonds  form  the 
principal,  and  apparently  an  inex- 
haustible, source  of  wealth  to  the 
Delagoa  Bay.  colony.      Since  the  gem  was  first 

discovered  in  South  Africa  in  1867, 
over  $350,000,000  worth  of  diamonds  have  been  exported, 
chiefly  from  the  Kimberley  mines. 

There  are  over  1,800  miles  of  railways  open  for  traffic. 
Government.     The  Cape  Colony  possesses  a  responsi- 
ble government,  under  a  governor  appointed  by  the  crown. 
Towns.    Cape  Town  is  the  chief  place  in  the  colony.    It 
is  the  capital,  and  the  most  important  place  in  British  South 
Africa . 

NATAL. 

The  British  colony  of  Natal  (so  named 
because  Da  Gama  discovered  the  Natal  coast 
on  Christmas  Day)  includes  the  territory 
lying  between  the  Tugela  River  on  the 
north  and  the  Umtamfuna  on  the  south. 
Natal  has  an  area  of  about  21,150  square 
miles.  The  climate  is  warmer  than  that 
of  the  Cape,  and  the  productions  are  in 
many  respects  different.  The  sugar-cane 
grows  wild,  and  the  cotton  plant  is  capable 
of  culture.  The  pineapple  and  the  fruits 
of  southern  Europe  flourish. 

Natal  contains  about  550,000  inhabitants, 
40,000  of  whom  are  Europeans. 

OTHER  BRITISH  COLONIES  AND  PROTECTO- 
RATES. 

Zululand  is  a  British  colony  lying  to  the 
northeast  of  Natal. 

Tongaland,  Basutoland,  and  Bechua- 
naland are  all  important  countries,  under 
the  control  of   the  British,  but   they  are 


South  Africa.  —  Islands  of  Africa. 


125 


mostly  inhabited  by  natives,  who,  however,  are  attaining 
some  degree  of  civilization. 

Zambezia  includes  the  vast  region  under  British  protec- 
tion in  South  Central  Africa. 

Matabeleland  and  Mashonaland  are  rich  in  gold,  and 
the  healthy  and  fairly  fertile  uplands  are  all  being  rapidly 
settled  by  Europeans.  The  "Pioneer  Expedition  "  to  Ma- 
shonaland in  1890 founded  Salisbury  (the  present  capital), 
Victoria,  and  other  places. 

THE  ORANGE  FREE  STATE. 

The  Orange  Free  State  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Transvaal,  or  South  African  Republic;  on  the  west  by 
Griqualand  West;  on  the  south  by  Cape  Colony;  and  on  the 
east  by  Basutoland  and  Natal.  The  area  is  estimated  at 
41,500  square  miles,  and  the  population  at  207,000. 

The  white  inhabitants  (78,000  in  number),  nearly  all 
of  whom  are  of  Dutch  descent,  are  mainly  engaged  in  sheep- 
farming.  Wool  forms  the  principal  article  of  export.  Dia- 
monds, garnets,  and  other  precious  stones,  and  even  gold, 
are  found,  and  there  are  several  coal  mines. 

A  new  railway  runs  from  Colesberg,  in  Cape  Colony,  to 
Bloemfontein. 

The  government  is  republican  in  fonn,  an  elected  presi- 
dent holding  the  executive,  and  the  Volksraad  the  legisla- 
tive, power. 

Bloemfontein,  the  capital,  is  a  small  town  of  less  than 
4,000  inhabitants. 

The  people  have  excellent  schools  and  a  university,  and 
are  very  prosperous. 

THE  SOUTH  AFRICAN  REPUBLIC. 

The  South  African  Republic,1  also  called  the  Trans- 
vaal, comprises  an  extensive  territory  lying  beyond  the 
Vaal  River;  hence  its  name. 

The  area  of  the  republic  is  estimated  at  122,000  square 
miles.  The  population  includes  120,000  whites,  and  560,- 
000  natives, —  Zulu  Kaffirs  and  others. 

The  country  is  an  elevated  plateau  of  an  average  height 
of  3,000  feet,  sloping  west  and  north. 

The  country  is  largely  devoted  to  agriculture  and  stock- 
raising.  There  are  rich  gold-fields  around  Johannesburg 
and  Barberton.  The  Boers2  of  the  Transvaal  are  almost 
entirely  engaged  in  pastoral  pursuits.  Immense  numbers 
of  sheep  and  cattle  are  reared,  and  wool  and  hides  are 
largely  exported.     The  country  is  also  well  adapted  for  the 

'The  Transvaal,  like  the  adjoining  Orange  Free  State,  was  settled 
by  the  Boers.  A  republican  form  of  government  was  established,  and 
for  some  years  the  country  made  good  progress.  Since  1876  serious 
trouble  has  occurred  between  the  British  and  the  Boer  governments. 
The  British  troops  met  with  disaster  in  a  battle  at  MajubaHill  in  1881, 
and  in  1895  Dr.  Jameson  crossed  the  Transvaal  border  with  some  five 
hundred  troopers  on  a  raid;  but  he  was  surrounded  by  the  Boers,  and 
forced  to  surrender,  near  Krugersdorp.  This  raid  was  for  the  purpose 
of  aiding  the  population  in  and  around  Johannesburg,  who  were  refused 
full  civil  rights  by  the  Boer  government,  and  had  openly  rebelled.  The 
British  residents  of  Johannesburg  still  insisted  on  having  civil  rights, 
and  the  refusal  by  the  Boer  government  resulted  in  the  Transvaal  war 
of  1899-1900,  in  which  so  many  sanguinary  conflicts  occurred. 

2  Boer,  Dutch,  a  farmer. 


growth  of  cereals.  Excellent  tobacco  and  fine  fruits  are 
grown. 

The  government  is  vested  in  an  elected  president,  and  a 
parliament  of  two  Volksraaden  of  24  members  each. 

Over  twenty  gold-fields,  covering  an  area  of  over  one 
and  a  half  million  acres,  have  been  proclaimed.  Several 
hundred  companies,  employing  many  millions  of  capital, 
and  supporting  a  mining  population  of  at  least  50,000,  are 
actively  working  for  gold  alone. 

Pretoria  is  the  capital,  but  the  most  important  town  is 
Johannesburg.  Johannesburg  and  Pretoria  are  now  con- 
nected by  rail  with  Bloemfontein  and  the  Cape  Colony. 

QUESTIONS  ON  SOUTHERN  AFRICA. 

What  does  British  South  Africa  include  ?  From  what  did  the  Cape 
Colony  derive  its  name?  Who  discovered  Cape  Colony?  What  are 
the  principal  rivers  of  South  Africa?  Describe  the  climate  of  Cape 
Colony.  What  is  said  about  Cape  Town,  and  about  Kimberley?  What 
are  the  products  of  Cape  Colony?  Describe  the  railroads.  Describe 
the  British  colony  of  Natal.  Why  is  it  called  Natal?  Describe  the 
climate.  Tell  what  you  can  about  Zululand.  Where  is  Zambezia? 
Locate  the  Orange  Free  State.  How  many  inhabitants  are  there? 
What  is  the  principal  article  of  export?  What  minerals  are  found  in 
the  Orange  Free  State?  Describe  the  government.  Describe  the 
schools  and  the  people.  Locate  the  South  African  Republic.  Describe 
the  natural  features  of  the  country.  What  is  meant  by  the  word 
"Boer"?  What  are  the  occupations  of  the  Boers?  Describe  the  gov- 
ernment. Tell  what  you  can  about  the  gold  product  of  this  country. 
What  is  the  capital? 

i 

ISLANDS  OF  AFRICA. 

All  the  islands  on  or  off  the  coast  of  Africa  belong  to 
various  European  powers. 

The  Canary  Islands,  in  the  Atlantic,  belong  to  Spain. 

Madeira  and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  belong  to  Portugal . 

The  islands  of  Ascension,  St.  Helena,1  and  Tristan  da 
Cunha  belong  to  Great  Britain,  while  Zanzibar  and  Pemba 
are  under  British  protection. 

The  island  of  Reunion,  or  Bourbon,  is  a  French  colony, 
and  Madagascar  and  the  Comoro  Islands  are  under  French 
protection. 

Madagascar  is  the  largest  of  the  African  islands.  It  is 
1,000  miles  in  length,  350  miles  at  its  greatest  width,  and 
has  an  area  of  230,000  square  miles.  The  whole  island  is 
under  the  sovereignty  of  the  intelligent  and  powerful 
Hovas,  as  the  tribes  dwelling  in  its  most  central  province 
are  called.  At  the  beginning  of  the  century  the  people  were 
all  pagans,  but  the  missionaries  have  converted  many  to 
Christianity,  and  it  is  now  the  state  religion  in  the  island. 
This  great  island  is  in  the  tropics,  and  is  separated  from 
the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  by  the  broad  and  deep  Mozam- 
bique Channel. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  ISLANDS  OF  AFRICA. 
Where  are  the  Canary  Islands?     To  what  country  do  they  belong' 
Where 'are  the  Madeira    Islands?      To  what  country  do  they  belong? 
Describe  Madagascar.     What  is  the  religion  of  the  people  of  Mada- 
gascar? 

1  The  chief  interest  attaching  to  St.  Helena  is  derived  from  the 
fact  of  its  having  been,  during  the  last  six  years  of  his  life,  the  place 
of  exile  of  Napoleon  the  Great,  who  died  at  Longwood  in  1821.  His 
body  was  removed  to  Paris  in  1840, 


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THE  BUILDING  OF  CITIES. 


Map  of  London  and  Vicinity. 

The  study  of  the  building  of  cities  is  more  interesting 
than  that  of  the  building  of  mountains,  because  it  comes 
nearer  the  life  of  the  people.  Each  town  has  its  own  history, 
just  as  each  home  has  its  history.  The  building  of  a 
city  depends  upon  so  many  things,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  account  for  all  the  causes  that  make  a  great  city;  but 
there  are  some  facts  that  may  be  stated. 

More  than  half  of  the  large  cities  of  the  world  are 
located  on  the  sea-coast,  or  near  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
where  there  are  good  facilities  for  shipping.  This  is 
very  time  of  the  old  cities  around  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  It  is  also  true  of  the  seaports  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  Cities  are  also  built,  just  as  post-offices  and 
small  towns  are  sometimes  built,  at  cross  roads,— that 
is,  great  cities  are  built  where  the  roads  of  commerce 
meet  and  cross  each  other.  Large  cities  have  been 
built,  in  the  United  States,  away  from  navigable  rivers 
and  seaports,  on  account  of  their  sites  being  the  center 
of  large  natural  resources,  and  having  the  advantages 
of  a  number  of  railroads.  Towns  have  been  built,  again, 
on  account  of  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  of  water-power,  cli- 


mate, and  other  physical  features.  There  are  ten 
cities  in  the  world  that  have  a  population  of  over  one 
million  people.1 

London  proper  has  a  population  of  4,411,271. 
Greater  London  has  a  population  of  over  6,000,000. 
It  is  one  of  the  great  centers  of  the  world.  Having 
started  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  it  absorbed  a 
great  part  of  the  trade  of  Britain  and  the  colonies. 
London  was  spoken  of  by  Bede  as  ' '  the  mart  of  many 
nations,  resorting  to  it  by  sea  and  land."  That  was 
many  centuries  ago.  To-day  it  is  the  commercial  and 
financial  metropolis  of  the  world. 

Paris.     Paris  lies  in  a  rich  agricultural  basin  at 
the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Seine,  and  near  the 
junction  of  several  branches  of  this  river.     Havre  is 
its  harbor,  and  the  only  good  harbor  on  the  north  of 
Prance,  having  good  rail  and  water  communication 
with  the  interior.    The  navigation  of  the  Seine  and  its  trib- 
utaries has  been  improved  and  canals  dug,  so  that  Paris 
has  now  the  best  system  of  waterways  in  the  world.     Its 


Map  of  the  City  of  Berlin. 


Map  of  the  City  of  Paris. 

devotion  to  art  has  also  been  a  factor  in  building  up  the 
city. 

Canton,  the  chief  commercial  city  of  China,  has  a  fine 
harbor  about  seventy  miles  from  the  sea,  and  a  river  con- 
necting it  with  the  rich  interior  provinces. 

Tokyo  has  a  fine  harbor  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  the 
same  name,  near  the  mouth  of  three  navigable  rivers.  At 
one  time  the  nobility  of  Japan  were  compelled  to  reside  the 
half  of  each  year  in  Tokyo.  This  also  helped  to  build  up 
the  city. 

Berlin  is  a  great  city  that  is  not  located  on  any  navi- 
gable water,  but  of  recent  years  has  grown  on  account  of  its 
excellent  railroad  facilities.  Before  railroads  were  built,  it 
was  an  important  city  for  six  hundred  years,  on  account  of 

1  This  includes  New  York,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  London,  Vienna, 
Berlin,  Paris,  St.  Petersburg,  Canton,  and  Tokyo. 


128 


The  Building  of  Cities. 


its  manufactures,  and  be- 
ing located  where  it  served 
as  a  convenient  trading- 
point  for  a  rich  and  fertile 
country. 

Vienna  is  on  the  line  of 
trade  between  India,  Per- 
sia, and  central  Europe. 
It  also  has,  in  addition  to 
its  foreign  commerce,  a 
large  domestic  trade.  It 
is  on  the  Danube  River. 

New  York  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor,  the  best  on 
the  Atlantic  coast.  This 
fact,  and  its  position  on 
the  Hudson  River,  were 
the  first  two  natural  ad- 
vantages tending  to  make 
a  great  city;  then  its  in- 
terior canals,  and  later  its 


Map  of  New  York  City. 


railroads  extending  in  all  directions,  have  made  it  a  great 
city.     It  has  therefore  been  a  pathway  for  commerce  from 

European  countries  to  the 
United  States.  It  is  the 
largest  city  of  the  western 
hemisphere.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  foreign  trade 
between  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica is  from  New  York  City. 
Boston.  Boston  has  a 
fine  harbor.  It  receives 
and  distributes  the  greater 
portion  of  the  merchan- 
dise for  the  New  England 
States.  The  material  used 
in  manufacture  and  the 
manufactured  products  are 
sent  from  Boston  to  other 
parts  of  the  United  States 
Map  of  the  City  of  Chicago.  and  Europe.    It  is  the  seat 

of  Harvard  University,  and  its  devotion  to  art,  music,  and 
literature  has  been  no  small  factor  in  building  up  the  city. 

San  Francisco,  the 
great  city  of  the  Pacific 
Coast,  is  to  the  Pacific  what 
New  York  is  to  the  Atlantic. 
It  has  an  excellent  harbor, 
and  railway  and  water  com- 
munication with  the  interior 
of  the  state.  It  also  has  a 
large  import  and  export 
trade  with  the  Orient,  and 
the  development  of  the  new 
commerce  of  the  Pacific  will 
tend  to  make  it  one  of  the 
Map  of  the  City  of  Hew  Orleans.       great  cities  of  the  world. 


Chicago  is  the  heart 
of  a  great  agricultural  re- 
gion. Lake  Michigan  has 
tended  from  the  start  to 
make  Chicago  the  center 
of  a  large  and  productive 
area.  The  Chicago  River 
furnishes  harbor  facilities. 
The  great  extension  of  rail- 
roads terminating  at  Chi- 
cago from  all  points  of  the 
fertile  West  has  tended  to 
make  the  growth  of  Chi- 
cago the  marvel  of  the 
world.  In  1837  Chicago 
had  a  population  of  four 
thousand.  In  1900  its 
population  is  estimated  at 
over  two  million. 

Seattle  and  Tacoma, 

favored  as  they  are  by  lo- 


cation, have  the  same  natural  advantages  that  have  built 
up  the  cities  of  the  world.  The  reason  why  they  are  not 
now  the  equal  in 
population  and 
greatness  of  the 
older  cities,  is  be- 
cause they  started 
late ;  but  these 
young  giants  of 
the  West  have  ad- 
vantages over  the 
cities  of  the  Old 
World,  because 
the  forests,  the 
mineral  wealth, 
and  the  fertile  soil 
will  build  them  up 
more  rapidly.    In 

addition   to   this, 

,i  „  •■•  Map  of  the  City  of  Boston. 

these  young  cities  *  ' 

have  the  advantage  of  all  the  modern  equipments  of  electri- 
city and  other  forces  of  commercial  and  manufacturing  life 
to  assist  in  their 
further  develop- 
ment. 

Suggestions  to 
Teachers.      Have 

your  pupils  study 
the  growth  of  the 
village,  the  town, 
or  the  city,  and  give 
and  find  out  the  rea- 
son why  the  present 
site  was  chosen,  why 
people  settled  there, 
and  the  elements 
that  tended  to  make 
it  what  it  is.  Map  of  the  City  of  Washington. 


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Questions  for  a  General  Review. 


129 


TOPICAL  AND  OTHER  QUESTIONS  FOR  A  GENERAL  REVIEW. 


Describe  the  earth  by  telling  its  shape,  size,  circumference,  di- 
ameter, movements,  and  position  in  the  solar  system. 
Explain  latitude,  longitude,  and  the  use  of  each. 
Explain  the  barometer.     The  thermometer.      (Consult  dictionary 
as  to  meaning  of  the  terms. ) 

What  is  the  proportion  of  land  and  water  on  the  earth  ? 

What  names  are  given  to  different  land  forms?     Water  forms? 

Name  and  locate  the  continents. 

Name  ten  of  the  best  harbors  of  the  world. 

Locate  four  important  islands . 

Compare  Cuba  with  Hawaii  in  all  the  ways  you  can. 

Name  the  most  important  oceans. 

SURFACE. 
Describe  the  surface  of  each  continent,  giving  the  direction  of  the 
slope  and  river  basins  they  form. 

Locate  several  of  the  great  plains  of  the  world.  Tell  how  they 
were  formed. 

Name  ten  rivers  of  North  America,  ten  of  Europe,  ten  of  Asia,  five 
of  South  America,  and  five  of  Africa. 

Describe  each  by  telling  its  source,  direction,  etc.,  and  whether 
navigable  or  not 

Locate  the  lake  regions  of  each  continent. 

What  sections  would  you  visit  for  beautiful  lake  scenery? 

Locate  five  important  capes  of  the  world . 

Name  the  mountain  systems. 

CLIMATE. 
Describe  the  climate  of  each  continent  by  telling  the  effect  of  the 
variations  in  latitude,  elevation,  air  and  water  currents,  nearness  to 
sea,  mountain  barriers,  and  slopes. 

Compare  the  climate  of  Russia  with  that  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Where  are  the  regions  of  greatest  rainfall?     Of  least  rainfall? 

PRODUCTS. 
Locate  the  great  forest  belts  of  the  world. 

What  is  the  difference  between  forests  near  the  equator  and  those 
of  northern  latitudes?  Where  are  the  great  lumbering  sections  of  the 
world? 

Locate  the  grass  and  grain  sections. 

Compare  the  vegetation  charts  of  North  America,  South  America, 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

What  sections  of  the  world  export  tea,  rice,  Indian  corn? 
What  countries  raise  and  export  wool,  cotton,  tobacco? 
Name  the  countries  where  manufacturing  is  highly  developed. 
Locate  the   principal   cities  noted   for  the  manufacture  of  silks, 
watches,  carpets,  linens. 

In  what  sections  are  the  finest  fur-bearing  animals  found? 
Locate  the  principal  sea  fisheries,  and  tell  what  fish  abound  in  each. 
Locate  the  sections  especially  noted  for  the  production  of  gold,  sil- 
ver, coal,  petroleum,  diamonds,  marble. 

CITIES. 
Name  and  locate  the  ten  largest  cities  in  the  world.     Tell  what 
made  them  large.     Name  five  large  inland  cities.      Name  five  cities 
noted  as  seaports. 

Locate  the  cities  noted  for  ship-building. 

PEOPLE. 
Name  the  five  races.      Describe  and  locate  each.      What  regions 
are  most  densely  settled?     What  regions  have  no  inhabitants?     Give 
reasons  for  differences  in  population. 

Describe  the  various  religions.  Describe  the  different  forms  of 
government . 

Name  and  locate  ten  great  universities  of  the  world.  Name  five 
eountries  that  have  excellent  public  school  systems. 

COMMERCE. 

What  is  commerce? 

In  what  three  ways  is  trade  chiefly  carried  on? 


Describe  some  of  the  great  railway,  caravan,  and  water  routes 
of  the  world. 

Name  five  transcontinental  railroads  of  the  United  States. 

What  three  run  to  Puget  Sound? 

Make  a  list  of  the  freight  that  a  train  would  probably  haul  from 
Seattle,  Tacoma,  and  Spokane  to  Chicago.     From  Chicago  to  Seattle. 

What  ocean  is  most  used  for  commerce?  What  part  of  the  ocean? 
What  countries  trade  with  each  other  extensively?  Name  four  cities 
that  are  largely  engaged  in  international  commerce.  Tell  the  ad- 
vantages of  commerce  when  the  traffic  can  be  carried  on  by  sea-going 
vessels,  over  that  between  cities  where  railroads  must  be  used  for 
transportation  of  freight.  Describe  the  various  modes  of  transporta- 
tion. Give  some  of  the  advantages  to  commerce  of  the  Suez  Canal. 
What  benefit  to  trade  is  the  Chicago  Canal,  connecting  Lake  Michigan 
with  the  Mississippi?  Tell  what  changes  would  likely  take  place  in  the 
commerce  of  the  Pacific  if  the  Nicaragua  Canal  should  be  built  across 
Central  America,  connecting  in  a  great  waterway  for  vessels  of  all 
kinds  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic. 

A  TRIP  AROUND  THE  WORLD. 

Start  from  Seattle.  Go  direct  to  Honolulu.  Describe  the  kind  of 
people  you  meet  there;  the  climate;  and  if  you  stopped  long  enough 
for  a  meal,  what  native  foods  would  you  probably  have  on  the  table? 
Then  go  direct  to  Yokohama.  How  many  days  would  it  take  you  to 
reach  Yokohama  from  Seattle  ?  What  would  happen  when  you  crossed 
the  international  date  line?  What  kind  of  people  would  you  find  at  Yo- 
kohama? Describe  some  of  the  customs  of  the  people.  What  native 
foods  would  you  have  for  a  dinner  in  Yokohama?  What  great  city  is 
near  Yokohama?  Describe  the  country  of  Japan.  From  Yokohama 
go  to  Shanghai.  About  how  far  between  the  two  places?  Describe 
the  people  of  Shanghai.  Give  an  account  of  some  of  the  customs  of 
the  people.  What  kind  of  clothes  do  they  wear?  How  do  they  wear 
the  hair?  Tell  what  you  can  about  China.  Next  sail  from  Shanghai 
to  Hongkong.  Describe  Hongkong.  It  is  near  what  great  city?  To 
what  country  does  Hongkong  belong?  Next  sail  to  Manila.  How 
far  is  it  from  Hongkong?  For  what  is  Manila  noted?  Describe  the 
country  and  the  people.  What  great  event  took  place  at  Manila  in 
1898?  Next  go  to  Calcutta.  Describe  the  people,  and  the  country, 
around  Calcutta.  Next  go  through  the  Red  Sea,  Suez  Canal,  into  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Describe  some  of  the  interesting  places  you  might 
stop  at  on  this  journey.  Then  sail  past  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar  up  to 
Liverpool.  Then  take  the  train  to  London.  Describe  the  people  of 
London.  Then  take  the  steamer  from  Liverpool  to  New  York.  De- 
scribe New  York  and  its  harbor.  What  notable  statue  would  you 
observe  as  you  sailed  into  New  York  harbor?  Then  take  the  train 
on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  to  Washington.  Describe  Wash- 
ington. Name  several  of  its  most  important  points  of  interest.  Next 
go  to  Chicago.  Describe  Chicago.  Name  its  most  important  indus- 
tries. How  does  it  rank  among  the  great  cities  of  the  world?  Then 
Then  take  the  train  to  St.  Paul  in  time  to  catch  the  North  Pacific 
Coast  Limited  for  Seattle.  Near  what  wonderful  park  would  you  pass? 
Describe  it.  If  you  have  never  seen  it,  give  an  account  of  some  of  the 
pictures  of  it  you  have  seen.  Name  the  states  you  would  pass  through 
in  traveling  from  New  York  to  Seattle  via  Washington,  Chicago,  and 
the  Northern  Pacific.  About  how  many  miles  would  you  travel  going 
around  the  world  according  to  the  foregoing  outline?  About  how 
long  would  it  take  you,  if  you  stopped  over  about  twenty-four  hours  at 
each  place?     How  much  would  it  cost?1 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

The  map  of  the  world  on  pages  130  and  131  should  be  used  in  drill- 
ing the  pupils  on  the  commercial  relations  of  the  various  countries, 
and  in  fixing  definitely  the  cities  and  eountries  in  their  relations  to 
each  other. 

1  The  time  schedule  of  a  trip  around  the  world,  as  outlined,  is  about  four  months. 
The  first-class  fare  is  from  six  hundred  to  one  thousand  dollars.  This  includes  rail- 
road fare,  and  meals  on  steamers. 


10  11  13  13  14  15  16  IT  18 


STATISTICS   AND   GENERAL   INFORMATION. 


CONTINENTS  AND  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES. 

Note.  — The  figures  1897,  1890,  etc.,  refer  to  the  year  in  which  the  estimate  was  made. 

Area  in  Square  Miles.       Population. 

North  America 6,446,000  94,000,000  1897 

United  States  (with  Alaska)  3,602,990  62,840,835  1890 

Mexico 767,005  12,619,959  1895 

Canada 3,653,946  4,833,239  1891 

South  America 6,837,000  40,000,000  1897 

Brazil 3,209,878  18,000,000  1892 

Argentina 1,778,195  3,954,911  1895 

Peru  449,000  3,000,000  1897 

Chile 290,829  2,527,320  1895 

Europe 3,850,000  374,000,000  1897 

Russia 2,095,616  106,191,795  1897 

German  Empire 208,830  52,279,901  1895 

Austria-Hungary 240,942  41,359,204  1890 

France 204,092  38,517,975  1896 

British  Isles 120,979  38,104,975  1891 

Italy 110,646  31,667,946  1898 

Spain 197,670  17,565,632  1887 

Turkey  in  Europe 62,744  5,711,000  1898 

Asia  (with  islands) 17,255,890  831,000,000  1897 

Chinese  Empire 4,218,401  402,680,000  1897 

India 1,559,603  287,123,350  1891 

Japan :.... 147,655  42,708,264  1896 

Turkey  in  Asia 650,097  16,823,500  1898 

Siberia 4,833,496  5,727,090  1897 

Africa 11,508,793  170,000,000  1897 

Kongo  Free  State 900,000  14,000,000  1898 

Egypt 400,000  9,734,405  1897 

Cape  Colony 276,925  1,766,040  1891 

South  African  Republic...  119,139  1,094,156  1898 

Australia 2,946,691  3,036,570  1891 

New  South  Wales 310,700  1,335,800  1898 

Victoria 87,884  1,169,434  1898 

Queensland 668,497  484,700  1897 

South  Australia 903,690  358,224  1897 


TEMPERATURE  AND  RAINFALL  OF  FOREIGN  CITIES. 


Tempera-     Rainfall, 
rare.*  Inches. t 

Alexandria 69.0  10 

Algiers 64.3  27 

Amsterdam 49 . 9         .... 

Athens 63.0 

Bagdad 74.0 

Berlin 48.2 

Berne 46.0 

Bombay 81 . 3 

Brussels 50.0 

Budapest 51.9 

Buenos  Ayres ....  62 . 8 

Canton 71.0 

Cape  Town 62.0 

Cherrapongee  % 

Christiania 41.5 

Constantinople.  .  .56.5 

Dublin 50.1 

Glasgow 49.8 

Hague 52.0 

Havana 79.1 

Hongkong 73.0 

Honolulu 75.0 

Iceland 39.0 

*  The  temperature  given  is  the  mean  annual  temperature. 

tThe  rainfall  given  is  the  average  annual  rainfall. 

Jin  southwestern  Assam  (India).    It  is  the  wettest  place  in  the  World.    In  1861 
the  rainfall  there  reached  905  inches. 

Note.  — The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  globe  is  50'  F.    The  average  annual 
rainfall  is  36  inches. 


2-i 
46 
75 
29 
17 

39 

23 

610 


29 
44 


91 

101 


30 


Tempera- 
ture.* 

Jerusalem 62 . 6 

Lisbon 61.4 

London 50 . 8 

Madrid 52.2 

Manila 78.4 

Marseilles    58.3 

Melbourne 57.0 

Mexico 60 . 9 

Moscow 40.0 

Naples  60.3 

Paris 51.3 

Pekin 53.0 

Prague 50 . 2 

Rome 60.5 

Smyrna 60.0 

St.  Petersburg  .  .  .39.6 

Stockholm 42.3 

Tobolsk 32.0 

Valdivia 52.0 

Valparaiso 64 . 0 

Venice 55.4 

Vienna 51.0 

Warsaw 56.2 


Rainfall. 
Inches. t 

16 

27 

25 

9 

23 
29 


30 

22 
27 
14 
31 
24 
17 
20 

106 


19 


SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Length  of  the  Earth's  Axis  at  equator  (miles) 7,926 

Length  of  the  Equator  (miles) 24,902 

The  Earth's  Surface  (square  miles) 196,940,000 

The  Sea 141,486,000 

Pacific  Ocean  (square  miles) 55,660,000 

Atlantic  Ocean  (square  miles) 33,720,000 

Antarctic  Ocean  and  the  great  southern  sea 

surrounding  south  pole  (square  miles) .  .30,605,000 

Indian  Ocean  (square  miles) 16,720,000 

Arctic  Ocean  (square  miles) 4,781,000 


TWENTY-FIVE  LARGEST  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

City.  m                                 Country.                                Population.  Year. 

1 .  London England 4,504,766  1898 

2.  New  York United  States 3,549,558  1899 

3 .  Paris France 2,536,834  1896 

4 .  Canton China 2,500,000 

5 .  Chicago United  States 1,950,000  1899 

6 .  Berlin Germany 1,677,304  1895 

7 .  Vienna Austria-Hungary 1,364,548  1890 

8 .  Philadelphia United  States 1,350,000  1899 

9.  Tokyo Japan 1,299,941  1896 

10.  St.  Petersburg Russia 1,267,023  1897 

11 .  Moscow Russia 988,614       .     1897 

12 .  Tientsin China 950,000  1898 

13 .  Pekin China 900,000  1898 

14.  Constantinople Turkey 873,565  1885 

15.  Calcutta India 861,764  1891 

16.  Bombay India 821,764  1891 

17.  Buenos  Ayres Argentina 753,000  1898 

18.  Glasgow  ." Scotland 724,349  1898 

19 .  Bangkok Siam 700,000  1898 

20.  Warsaw Poland 638,209  1897 

21 .  Liverpool England 633,645  1898 

22 .  Hamburg Germany 625,552  1895 

23 .  St.  Louis United  States 623,000  1899 

24.  Cairo Egypt 570,062  1897 

25 .  Brussels Belgium 551,011  1897 


TWENTY-SIX  LARGEST  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Note.  —  The  great  increase  in  size  of  New  York  is  due  to  the  joining  of  Brooklyn 
and  other  cities  to  it,  making  Greater  New  York.  > 


Estimated  Population, 
January  1,  1900. 


Population, 
Census  1890. 


3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23 . 
24. 
25. 
26. 


New  York,  New  York 3,549,588 

Chicago,  Illinois 1,950,000 

Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania 1,350,000 

St.  Louis,  Missouri 623,000 

Boston,  Massachusetts 530,000 

Baltimore,  Maryland 500,000 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 405,000 

Cleveland,  Ohio 400,000 

Buffalo,  New  York 400,000 

San  Francisco,  California 350,000 

Detroit,  Michigan 350,000 

Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania 315,000 

New  Orleans,  Louisana 300,000 

Washington,  District  of  Columbia  .  .  278,718  (Census  looo) 

Milwaukee,  Wisconsin 280,000 

Newark,  New  Jersey 250,000 

Louisville,  Kentucky 225,000 

Minneapolis,  Minnesota 200,000 

Jersey  City,  New  Jersey 200,000 

Kansas  City,  Missouri 200,000 

Indianapolis,  Indiana 200,000 

Rochester,  New  York '. 177,000 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota 175,000 

Providence,  Rhode  Island 167,000 

Denver,  Colorado 165,000 

Manila,  Philippines 154,000 


1,515,301 
1,099,850 
1,046,964 
451,770 
448,477 
434,439 
296,908 
261,353 
255,664 
298,997 
205,876 
238,617 
242,039 
230,392 
204,468 
181,830 
161,129 
164,738 
163,003 
132,716 
105,436 
133,896 
133,156 
132,146 
106,713 


132 


Statistics  and  General  Information. 


133 


CHIEF  EXPORTS  OF  THE  LEADING  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Country.  Chief  Articles  of  Export. 

Argentina         Wool,  dried  ox-hides,  beef,   tal- 
low, wheat. 
Australian        Wool,  gold,  wheat,  flour,  copper, 
Colonies  copper  ore. 

Austria-  Grain,  sugar,  molasses,  wood,  ani- 

Hungary  mals,      leather     and      leather- 

wares,  glass  and  glasswares. 

Belgium  Grain,  coal,  coke,  flax,   linen  and 

hemp  yarn,  machinery. 

Brazil  Coffee,    sugar,    rubber,     tobacco, 

cotton. 

British  Cotton,  woolen,  linen,  leather,  silk, 

Islands  and  jute  manufactures,  iron,  steel, 

machinery,  steam-engines,  coal, 
apparel,  leather,  woolen  and  wor- 
sted yarn,  hardware,  cutlery,  cop- 
per (wrought  and  unwrought) , 
earthenware,  and  porcelain. 

Canada  Timber,      animals,     barley,     rye, 

wheat,  cheese,  dried  fish. 

Cape  Colony     Diamonds,  wool,  ostrich  feathers, 
copper  ore,  angora  hair. 

Ceylon  Coffee,  cocoanutoil,  cinchona  bark, 

tea. 

Chile  Nitrate  of   soda,    copper,    guano, 

silver  ore,  wheat. 

China  Tea,  silk,  and  silk  goods. 

Cuba  Sugar,  tobacco. 

Denmark  Swin e, butter,  horned  cattle , barley. 

Egypt  Cotton,  beans,  sugar. 

France  Wool,  silkand  cottonmanufaetures, 

silk  (raw  and  waste),  wine,  hides 
(tanned  or  curried) ,  cheese,  but- 
ter, wool  leather-wares,  haber- 
dashery, metal  wares,  sugar. 


Cities. 
Buenos  Ayres 

Sydney,  Melbourne, 
Brisbane 

Trieste 


Antwerp 


Kio  Janeiro,  Bahia, 

Italy 

Para 

Jamaica 

London,  Liverpool, 

Japan 

Manchester, 

Mexico 

Glasgow,  Dublin 

Netherlands 

New  Zealand 

Montreal,  Quebec 

Norway 

Cape  Town 

Portugal 

Russia  in 

Colombo 

Europe 

Valparaiso, 

Spain 

Concepcion 

Canton,  Hongkong 

Sweden 

Havana 

Switzerland 

Copenhagen 

Cairo,  Alexandria 

United 

Marseilles, 

States 

Bordeaux, 

Havre 

Country. 
German 
Empire 


Greece 
India 


Chief  Articles  of  Export. 

Wool,  cotton,  and  silk  manufac- 
tures, sugar,  iron,  leather- wares, 
coal,  machinery  (including  loco- 
motives) ,  paper,  woolen  and  cot- 
ton yarns. 

Cereals,  cotton  manufactures,  cur- 
rants, building-wood, ores, wines. 

Raw  cotton,  opium,  rice,  oil-seeds, 
wheat,  jute,  indigo,  tea. 

Silk,  olive  oil,  wine,  fruit. 

Fruit,  sugar,  rum,  coffee,  logwood. 

Silk,  artistic  products,  coal,  tea. 

Silver,  gold,  dyewoods  and  cabi- 
net woods,  fibers,  vanilla,  coffee, 
tobacco. 

Peruvian  bark,  iron  bars  and 
wares,  butter,  refined  sugar. 

Wool,  gold,  wheat,  meat. 

Wood,  cod  (dried  or  split),  her- 
rings, train  oil,  lucifer  matches. 

Wine,  cork. 

Wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  flax, 
wood  of  all  sorts,  linseed,  hemp, 
raw  wool. 

Wine,  lead,  iron  ore,  copper  ore, 
raisins,  oranges,  cork. 

Wood,  iron,  oats,  butter. 

Articles  of  food,  raw  and  manufac- 
tured silk,  cottons,  and  watches. 

Raw  cotton,  wheat,  wheat  flour, 
bacon,  hams,  refined  mineral  oil, 
corn,  lard,  wood  and  manufac- 
tures of  wood,  tobacco,  animals, 
cheese, cottonmanufaetures, lum- 
ber, fish,  and  canned  goods. 


Cities. 
Bremen,  Hamburg 


Piranis 

Bombay,  Calcutta 

Naples,  Venice 
Kingston 
Tokyo,  Yokohama 
Vera  Cruz 


Amsterdam, 
Rotterdam 
Auckland. 
Cristiania 

Lisbon 

St.  Petersburg, 

Odessa 

Barcelona 

Stockholm 
Geneva,  Berne 

New  York,  Boston, 
Philadelphia, 
Baltimore, 
New  Orleans, 
San  Francisco, 
Seattle,  Tacoma 


EXPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  1898. 

In  this  list  the  countries  to  which  most  goods  are  sent  are  named  first.  B.I.  stands 
for  British  Isles ;  Ger.  for  Germany ;  Can.  for  Canada;  Neth.  for  Netherlands ;  Belg. 
for  Belgium. 


Ag.  implements 

Beef  products .  . 

Cattle 

Carriages,  cars, 
and  bicycles. . 
Coal  and  coke 

Copper  

Corn 

Cotton,  unmfd 

Cotton,  mfd .... 

Drugs,  chemi- 
cals, dyes,  and 
medicines ... 

Fruits  and  nuts . 

Hog  products    . 

Iron  and  steel 
and  mfrs 


Leather  and  mfs. 

Mineral  oil 

Naval  stores  .  . . 

Timber,  lumber, 

and  mfrs 

Tobacco  

Vegetable  oil. . . 
Wheat  (bu) 
Wheat  (bbls.). 


31 
33 

10 
12 
34 
77 
232 

20 


10 

9 

118 

82 

21 

47 

9 


38 
28 
13 
72 
10 


New  York 


N.Y.,  Boston. 
Boston,  N.Y.. 


Can.,  Europe,  Argen- 
tina, Australasia 
B.I.,  S.Af.,  Ger. 
B.I. 


B.I.,  Belg. 

Canada 

Neth.,  B.I.,  France 


N.Y.,  Balto 

Lake  ports 

N.Y.,  Boston 

Balt.,N.O.,N.Y.,Phil.|B.L,  Europe 
NO.,  Galveston,  N.Y.,  B.I. ,  Ger.,  France 

Savannah I 

N.Y [China,  Can.,  B.I. 


N.Y B.I.,  S.A.,  Ger.,  Can. 

N.Y.,Boston,SanFran.  B.I.,  Ger.,  Neth 

Boston,  N.Y. ,  Balto...  B.I. ,  Belg.,  Ger 

N.Y.,  N.O.,  San  Fran. IB. I.,  Belg.,  Ger.,  Fr., 
Mexico 

Boston,  N.Y IB.L, Can., Neth., Belg. 

N.Y.,  Phil.,  Del B.I.,  Neth.,  Austria 

Savannah,  Brunswick, 


N.Y. 


B. I., Ger., Neth., Brazil 


N.Y.,  Pensacola,  N.O.  B.I. 

N. Y., Bait. ,N.O., Phil.  B.I., 

Galveston,  N.O.,  N.Y.  Ger. 

N.Y.,SanFran., Boston  B.I. 

Norfolk,  Balto.,  N.Y..  |B. I., Brazil,  Hongkong 


Ger.,  Argentina 
Belg.,  Ger.,  Can. 
B.I.,  Neth. 


Exports  of  lumber,  flour,  and  canned  goods  are  sent  from  Puget 
Sound  ports  to  Hawaii,  Hongkong,  Yokohama,  Vladivostok,  Shanghai, 
and  other  Asiatic  ports. 


IMPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  1898. 

This  table  includes  all  articles  whose  value  equaled  ten  millions  of  dollars,  and  the 
chief  country  from  which  the  importation  was  made. 

Coffee 54  millions. 

From  Brazil 33  millions. 

Rest  of  South  America 7         " 

Central  America 4         " 

Mexico 3         " 

Fruit  and  Nuts 16  millions. 

Bananas,  Central  Am.  and  W.  Indies.    .  .4  millions. 

Lemons,  Italy 3         " 

Currants    1         " 

Dates 1         " 

Oranges,  West  Indies 1         " 

Preserved  Fruits 1         " 

Hides  and  Skins 40  millions. 

South  America 19  millions. 

British  Isles 7         " 

Rest  of  Europe 10         " 

East  Indies 4         " 

India  Rubber 26  millions. 

Brazil 13  millions. 

British  Isles 6         " 

Rest  of  Europe 5         " 

Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones 15  miliions. 

France 3  millions. 

British  Isles 4         " 

Netherlands 3         " 

Silk,  Raw 27  millions. 

Japan  12  millions. 

Italy 7         " 

Silk  Goods 25  millions. 

France 10  millions. 

Germany 4         " 

Switzerland 4         " 

Tea 10  millions. 

Japan 4  millions. 

China 4         " 

Sugar 7li  millions. 

West  Indies 23  millions. 

East  Indies 16         " 

Hawaii 16         " 

Germany 8         " 


134 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


UNITED  STATES  STANDARD  TIME. 

The  earth  rotates  at  the  rate  of  15°  degrees  in  one  hour. 
A  watch  set  by  the  sun  at  any  point  will  be  slow  at  all  points 
east  and  fast  at  all  points  west,  in  comparison  with  the  cor- 
rect time  by  the  sun.  The  difference  is  at  the  rate  of  four 
minutes  to  a  degree  of  distance. 

In  1883  a  convention  of  railroad  managers  adopted  a  sys- 
tem by  which  the  time  of  certain  meridians  15°  or  one  hour 
apart  shall  be  held  as  the  standard  time. 

The  standards  for  different  parts  of  the  country  are :  Me- 
ridian 75°,  Eastern  Time;  90°,  Central  Time;  105°,  Moun- 
tain Time;    120°,  Pacific  Time. 

Passengers  are  required  to  reset  their  watches  at  each 
meridian.  They  must  set  their  watches  back  an  hour  if 
going  west,  and  forward  an  hour  if  going  east. 

Places  15°  apart  in  longitude  are  one  hour  apart  in  time. 
Hence,  when  it  is  noon  at  Washington  it  is  about  nine 
o'clock,  a.  M.,  in  Seattle. 

INTERNATIONAL  DATE  LINE. 

This  is  an  imaginary  line  near  the  180th  meridian.  (See 
map  of  the  world  on  page  130.) 

The  sun  is  all  the  time  rising  at  some  place  on  the  earth, 
and  the  light  of  sunrise  goes  around  the  earth  every  twenty- 
four  hours.  So  the  noon  hour  follows  the  sun  around  the 
earth  all  the  while.  Our  day  begins  with  midnight.  There 
is  a  perpetual  midnight  rolling  around  the  world.  It  has 
been  agreed  that  this  midnight  shall  take  a  new  name, 
Sunday,  Monday,  etc.,  as  it  crosses  the  International  Date 
Line  near  the  meridian  of  180°. 

When  a  man  travels  westward,  and  wishes  to  keep  his 
watch  with  local  time,  he  has  to  put  it  back  one  hour  every 
15°,  and  if  he  goes  entirely  around  the  world,  he  will  be 
obliged  to  move  the  hands  of  his  watch  back  an  hour 
twenty-four  times,  and  thus  will  Lose  a  day  in  his  reckoning. 

In  the  same  way,  one  going  eastward  around  the  world 
appears  to  gain  a  day.  Both  men  correct  their  reckoning 
at  the  International  Date  Line  near  the  180th  meridian,  and 
thus  people  in  the  same  place  have  the  same  day  of  the 
week,  no  matter  whether  they  reached  it  from  the  east  or 
from  the  west. 

UNITED  STATES  WEATHER  BUREAU. 

The  United  States  maintain  a  system  of  observations 
and  records  concerning  the  weather.  There  are  about  150 
observation  stations,  which  telegraph  the  following  data  to 
Washington  and  other  large  cities  twice  each  day :  — 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  as  shown  by  the  barom- 
eter. 

The  temperature,  as  shown  by  the  thermometer. 

The  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind. 

The  clearness  or  cloudiness  of  the  sky. 

The  fall  of  rain  or  snow  during  the  preceding  twenty-four 
hours. 

The  observations  are  made  each  day  at  8,  a.m.  and  8, 
p.m.,  by  time  based  upon  the  meridian  75  degrees  west  of 
Greenwich,  — the  meridian  of  standard  eastern  time. 


Reports  are  also  received  from  many  volunteer  observers 
at  other  stations. 

Maps  with  Weather  Indications  for  Each  Day,  with  Synop- 
sis and  Predictions.  —  These  weather  maps  are  furnished  free, 
and  teachers  interested  should  address  the  nearest  weather 
bureau  station  for  maps  for  use  in  the  school. 

Signal  flags  are  used  to  inform  the  public  as  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  weather. 

A  white  flag  indicates  clear  or  fair  weather. 

A  blue  flag  indicates  general  rain  or  snow. 

A  half-white    and  half-blue   flag   indicates   local 

RAIN    Or   SNOW. 

A   BLACK  TRIANGULAR   FLAG   refers   to   TEMPERATURE. 
A   WHITE    FLAG     with    a   BLACK    SQUARE    in    the     CENTER 

indicates  a  cold  wave. 

The  temperature  flag  hoisted  above  the  fair-weather 
or  rain  flag  indicates  warmer  weather;  below,  it  indi- 
cates colder  weather.  When  no  temperature  flag  is 
shown,  present  temperature  will  continue.  The  cold- 
wave  flag  means  a  sudden  and  decided  fall  in  tem- 
perature. 

RULES  FOR  FORETELLING  THE  WEATHER. 

A  Rising  Barometer.  —  A  rapid  rise  indicates  unsettled 
weather. 

A  gradual  rise  indicates  settled  weather. 

A  rise  with  dry  air  and  cold  increasing  in  summer  indi- 
cates wind  from  the  northward;  and  if  rain  has  fallen,  bet- 
ter weather  may  be  expected. 

A  rise  with  moist  air  and  a  low  temperature  indicates 
wind  and  rain  from  the  northward. 

A  rise  with  southerly  winds  indicates  fine  weather. 

A  Steady  Barometer.  —  A  steady  barometer  with  dry  air 
and  seasonable  temperature  indicates  a  continuance  of  very 
fine  weather. 

A  Falling  Barometer. — A  rapid  fall  indicates  stormy 
weather. 

A  rapid  fall  with  westerly  wind  indicates  stormy  weather 
from  the  northward. 

A  fall  with  a  northerly  wind  indicates  storm,  with  rain 
and  hail  in  summer,  and  snow  ill  winter. 

A  fall  with  increased  moisture  in  the  air,  and  heat  in- 
creasing, indicates  wind  and  rain  from  the  southward. 

A  fall  with  dry  air  and  cold  increasing  in  winter  indi- 
cates snow. 

A  fall  after  very  calm  and  warm  weather  indicates  rain 
with  squally  weather. 

The  barometer  rises  for  northerly  winds,  including  from 
northwest  by  north  to  the  eastward  for  dry  or  less  wet 
weather,  for  less  wind,  or  for  more  than  one  of  these 
changes,  except  on  a  few  occasions,  when  rain,  hail,  or 
snow  comes  from  the  northward  with  strong  wind. 

The  barometer  falls  for  southerly  wind,  including  from 
southeast  by  south  to  the  westward,  for  wet  weather,  for 
stronger  wind,  or  for  more  than  one  of  these  changes,  ex- 
cept on  a  few  occasions,  when  moderate  wind,  with  rain  or 
snow,  comes  from  the  northward. 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES. 


NAMES  OF  PLACES  IN  WASHINGTON. 


Aberdeen  (town  at  the  mouth),  after  Aberdeen,  Scotland. 

Acamas,  from  the  sweet  root  camas  (Camassia  edulis),  used  by  the 
Indians  as  food. 

Acme  (top),  descriptive  of  situation. 

Adams  County,  Mount  Adams,  in  honor  of  President  Adams. 

Adelaide,  after  the  Australian  town. 

Admiralty  Inlet,  named'by  Vancouver  in  honor  of  the  British  Ad- 
miralty. 

Agate,  from  the  stone  of  that  name. 

Ainslie  (hedge  meadow),  name  of  owner  of  a  local  mill. 

Alder,  Alderton,  from  the  alder  trees. 

Alki  Point  (Indian),  by  and  by. 

Allyn,  named  in  honor  of  Judge  Allyn. 

Alma  (Spanish),  soul.  v 

Almira  (Arabic),  princess. 

Almota  (corrupted  Indian),  torchlight  fishery. 

Alpha,  first  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet. 

Alpowa  (Nez  Perce),  mouth  of  spring  creek.  So  named  from  the 
many  springs. 

Alta  Vista,  high  view. 

Alto,  high. 

Amboy,  after  the  city  in  Hindustan. 

Anderson  Island,  after  a  settler. 

Appletree,  descriptive  name. 

Aquarium,  water-place. 

Arcadia,  land  of  arches.  - 

Arden  (shut-in  land),  after  English  place. 

Arpowa,  same  as  Alpowa  (1,  r,  and  u  are  interchangeable  letters). 

Arctic,  from  Arctic  (Great  Bear). 

Artondale  (English),  plow-town  dale. 

Asotin  County,  etc.  (Indian),  eel  creek. 

Auburn  (English),  old  brook. 

Aurora,  goddess  of  morn. 

Avon  (British,  waters),  after  English  place. 

Axford  (ford  of  Axe  River),  after  a  settler  named  Axeford. 

Bainbridge  Island,    after  the  United  States  brig  Bainbridge,  which 

was  named  after  the  commodore  of  that  name. 
Baker,  Mount,  from  the  fact  that  it  was  first  seen  by  Lieutenant  Baker, 

who  sailed  with  Vancouver. 
Balch  Passage  and  Lake,  after  Captain  Balch. 
Ballard,  name  of  a  settler. 

Bangor  (Welsh,  high  choir),  after  town  in  Maine. 
Barberton,  Barry,  surnames. 
Battleground,  scene  of  an  Indian  fight. 
Bay  Center,  Bay  View,  Bay  City,  Beach,  and  Beaver,  descriptive 

names. 
Belleville,  pretty  village. 
Bellevue,  pretty  view. 
Bellingham  Bay   (pretty  meadow  home),   named   in  honor  of  Lord 

Bellingham,  by  Vancouver. 
Belmont,  pretty  mountain. 

Bemis,  Bender,  Benston,  Berryman,  after  settlers. 
Birch  Bay,  from  the  fact  that  Vancouver  found  birch  trees  there. 
Birch  Post-office,  after  a  settler. 
Birdsview,  descriptive  name. 
Bismarck,  in  honor  of  Prince  Bismarck. 


Black  Diamond  (coal),  Black  River,  Black  Rock  Spring,  are  de 

scriptive. 
Blackmans,  name  of  a  settler. 
Blaine,  in  honor  of  James  G.  Blaine. 
Blake  Island,  Blakeley  Island,   named  by  Wilkes,  in  1841,  after 

shipmates. 
Blockhouse,    built    by    Territorial    Volunteers    under    ' '  Blockhouse 

James  Smith." 
Blue  Mountains,  descriptive;  as,  also,  are  Bluff  Siding  and  Bluff- 
ton. 
Boise  Creek  (French),  woods. 
Boisfort  (French),  strong  (or  great)  wood. 
Bossburg,  the  "  boss"  town. 

Boston.     All  Americans  were  called  "  Bostons  "  by  the  Indians. 
Boulevard,  Boundary,  descriptive. 
Bowmans  (an  archer),  Bradley  (broad  meadow),  Brennan  (Captain 

Brennan),  Brent,  names  of  settlers. 
Bridgeport,   Bridge  Creek,    Brookdale,    Brookfield,   descriptive 

names. 
Brooklyn  (brook  pool),  after  the  New  York  city. 
Brush  Prairie,  Buckeye,  are  descriptive. 
Buckley  (deer  meadow),  name  of  a  local  business  man. 
Bucoda,  named  by  taking  the  first  two  letters  of  the  owners'  names, 

—  Buckley,  Coulter,  and  Davis. 
Budds  Inlet,  named  by  Wilkes  in  1841. 
Buenna  (Spanish,  buena),  good. 
Bush  Prairie,  after  a  noted  negro  settler. 

Cadyville  (tub  town) ,  after  a  settler. 

Camden  (crooked  den),  after  the  New  Jersey  city. 

Canal  de  Haro,  after  a  Spanish  navigator  who  explored-it  in  1789. 

Canon  Rapids,  descriptive. 

Cape  Disappointment,  so  named  by  Meares  (July,  1778),  who  tried  t& 
find  a  river  described  by  Heceta  and  marked  on  his  map.  Not 
finding  the  river,  Deception  Bay  and  Cape  Disappointment  were 
thus  named  in  consequence.  In  1792  the  cape  was  named  Cape 
Hancock,  in  honor  of  John  Hancock,  by  Captain  Gray,  who,  on 
hearing  of  the  name  given  by  Meares,  restored  the  original  name. 

Cape  Flattery,  so  named  by  Captain  Cook  in  1778. 

Cape  Horn,  so  named  because  of  a  fancied  resemblance  to  the  South 
American  cape. 

Carbonado  (coal-place),  from  the  local  coal  mines. 

Carrs  Inlet,  after  an  explorer. 

Cascades,  Cascade  Mountains,  from  the  Columbia  falls. 

Cases  Inlet,  after  Lieutenant  Case,  of  Wilkes's  expedition. 

Cathlamet  (tribe,  river,  town),  so  named  because  of  stony  bed  of 
river,  from  the  Indian  word  meaning  "stone." 

Cedar  House,  Cedar  Mountain,  and  Cedarville,  so  called  because 
of  the  cedar  trees. 

Chautauqua  (Indian,  a  foggy  place),  after  the  New  York  place. 

Chehalis  (Indian),  sand.  So  named  because  of  the  sandy  mouth  of 
the  river. 

Chico  (Spanish),  little. 

Chimacum,  name  of  an  Indian  tribe. 

Chinook,  name  of  an  Indian  tribe  and  an  Indian  jargon. 

Chuck  (Indian),  water;  hence  Skookum  Chuck  (strong  water); 
Chuckanut,  etc. 


135 


136 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Cinebar,  corrupted  from  cinnabar. 

Clallam  (corrupted  Indian),  clam-man,  or  strong  people. 

Clarke  River  and  Clarke  County,  after  the  explorer. 

Cleveland  (cliff  land),  after  settler;  also,  Clifton  (cliff  town). 

Clyde,  after  the  British  river. 

Coal  Creek,. descriptive. 

Cceur  d'Alene  (French,  heart  of  the  awl),  descriptive  of  the  hard- 
ness of  a  trader's  heart. 

Coffin,  from  the  Indian  burial-caves  in  the  vicinity. 

Colfax,  in  honor  of  Vice-President  Colfax. 

Collins,  name  of  a  settler;  Collis  (Gen.  C.  T.  Collis) ;  Colton,  sur- 
name. 

Columbia  River,  from  Captain  Gray's  ship  Columbia,  in  which  he 
explored  the  river. 

Colville,  after  a  member  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company. 

Commencement  Bay,  where  deep-water  navigation  commences,  was  so 
named  by  Wilkes  in  1841. 

Cosmopolis,  "universe  city." 

Coulee  City,  from  the  Grand  Coulee,  a  marshy,  grassy  plain. 

Covikgton,  cove -meadow  town. 

Cowlitz,  name  of  an  Indian  tribe. 

Crab  Creek,  from  the  wild  crab-apple  trees. 

Crescent  Bay,  so  named  in  British  Admiralty  chart  of  1847 

Crescent  Lake  and  Crescent  Summit,  descriptive  names. 

Crimea,  from  fancied  resemblance. 

Custer,  in  honor  of  General  Custer. 

Cypress  Island,  so  named  by  Vancouver,  from  the  cypress  trees. 

Dalles,  troughs. 

Danas  Passage,  in  honor  of  Dana,  the  mineralogist  of  Wilkes's  expe- 
dition. 

Decatur,  named  in  honor  of  Commodore  Decatur. 

Deception  Pass,  so  named  by  Vancouver  in  171)2. 

Defiance  Point,  so  named  on  account  of  its  bold  appearance. 

Delphi,  after  the  ancient  Greek  town. 

Delta  (the  fourth  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet),  descriptive. 

Denny,  surname  of  a  Seattle  pioneer. 

Derby,  an  English  geographical  name  meaning  deer  home. 

Des  Chutes  (French),  the  falls. 

Des  Moines  (French),  the  mounds;  named  after  the  capital  of  Iowa. 

Destruction  Island,  so  named,  in  1787,  by  Captain  Berkeley. 

Devils  Head,  fanciful  name. 

Dewatto,  elves. 

Divide,  descriptive  name. 

Dixie,  so  named  by  a  Southerner. 

Docewallip  (Indian),  two  mouths. 

Doe  Bay,  from  the  deer. 

Douglas  County,  named  in  honor  of  Stephen  A.  Douglas. 

Downing  (hilly  slope),  surname  of  a  settler. 

Draytons  Passage,  named  by  Wilkes,  in  1841,  in  compliment  of  his 
draftsman. 

Dryad,  an  oak-nymph. 

Dubuque,  named  after  the  Iowa  city,  which  was  named  in  honor  of 
Julian  Dubuque. 

Dudley  (clothes  meadow),  surname. 

Dungeness  (danger  nose),  named  by  Vancouver  after  the  English  cape 
of  that  name. 

Duwamish  Head,  after  an  Indian  tribe.  "Mish"  is  an  Indian  word 
meaning  people. 

Eagle  Cliff,  Eagle  Gorgf,  Eagle  Island,  Eagleton,  names  sugges- 
tive of  the  eagle. 

Edgecombe,  edge  of  hollow. 

Edison,  named  in  honor  of  Thomas  A.  Edison. 

Eldorado  (Spanish),  land  of  gold. 

Ellensbirg,  named  in  honor  of  the  founder's  wife. 

Elliott  Bay,  named  by  Wilkes,  in  1841,  in  honor  of  Commodore 
Elliott. 


Enumclaw  (Indian),  little  mountain. 
Espanola,  Spanish. 
Etna  (Latin),  mountain  of  fire. 
Eureka  (Greek),  "I  have  found  it." 
Excelsior  (Latin),  still  higher. 

Fairhaven,  Fairholme  (meadow  home),  and  Fairview,  descriptive 

names. 
Fidalgo  Island,  named  in  honor  of  an  explorer,  by  Elisa,  in  1701. 
Fort  Canby,  named  in  honor  of  General  Canby. 
Foulweather  Bluff,  so  named  by  Vancouver. 
Fox  Island,  named  after  a  settler. 

Frankfort,  French  fort.     A  franca  was  a  javelin  used  by  the  French. 
Franklin  County,  named  in  honor  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 
Fremont  (French,  free  mountain),  named  in  honor  of  General  John  C. 

Fremont. 
Freshwater  Bay,  so  named  in  1847. 
Friday  Harbor,  so  named  from  being  discovered  on  Good  Friday. 

Galena,  lead.      « 

Garfield,  named  in  honor  of  President  Garfield. 

Georgia  Gulf  and  Strait  of  Georgia,  named  in  honor  of  George  IV. 

Gibraltar,  so  named  from  fancied  resemblance  to  the  European  rock. 

Gig  Harbor,  so  named  by  Wilkes,  in  1841,  because  of  its  capacity, 

suited  to  a  gig. 
Grange  City,  in  compliment  of  the  grangers. 
Grays  Harbor,  discovered  by  Captain  Gray  in  1792,  and  named  the 

same  year  by  Whidby,  who  surveyed  it. 
Grays  River  and  Grays  Point,  so  named  by  Vancouver,  in  honor  of 

Captain  Grey  of  the  British  navy. 

Hale  Passage,  named  in  compliment  of  the  philologist  of  Wilkes's 

expedition. 
Harstine  Island,  named  in  compliment  of  Lieutenant  Harstine. 
Hartford,  ford  of  the  deer. 

Hoods  Canal,  named  in  honor  of  Admiral  Hood,  by  Vancouver. 
Hoquiam  (Indian) ,  wood-destroyer.     So  named  from  the  fact  that  dead 

cedars  choke  the  stream. 
Humptulips  (Indian),  "hard  to  pole"  up  stream. 

Jefferson  County,  named  in  honor  of  President  Jefferson. 

Juan  de  Fuca,  name  of  a  reputed  Greek  navigator  sailing  under  the 

Spanish  flag. 
Juanita  (Spanish),  little  Jane. 

Juniata,  after  the  river  of  that  name  in  Pennsylvania. 
Juno,  a  Roman  goddess,  wife  of  Jupiter. 

Kalama  (Indian),  a  word  of  the  same  derivation  as  "calumet"  and 

"  cathlamet, "  meaning  stone. 
Kapousin  Lake  (Indian),  meadow. 
Kennewick,  king's  place  or  village. 
Kirkland,  church  land. 

Kitsap  County,  named  after  the  Indian  who  killed  Colonel  Slaughter. 
Kumtux  (Chinook  Indian),  understand. 

La  Camas,  the  quamash  root,  "  sweet  and  pleasant  to  the  taste." 
La  Conner,  from  the  name  of  Louisa  Agnes  Conner ;  hence  L.  A.  Cou- 

ner,  or  La  Conner. 
La  Crosse  (French),  the  cross. 
Lapush,  the  mouth. 

Lapwai  (Indian),  two  countries  of  the  Nez  Perces. 
Larchmont,  hill  or  place  of  the  larch  trees. 
Leon  (Spanish),  lion. 

Lewis  County  and  Lewis  River,  in  honor  of  Lewis,  the  explorer. 
Lincoln  County,  in  honor  of  President  Lincoln. 
Logan,  in  honor  of  General  John  A.  Logan. 

Lopes  Island,  named,  in  1847,  in  honor  of  a  resident  named  Lopez. 
Lowell  (little  hill),  named  in  honor  of  James  Russell  Lowell. 


Etymology  of  Geographical  Names. 


137 


Lummi  Island,  name  of  Indian  tribe. 
Luna  (Latin),  the  moon. 

Madrone,  a  kind  of  laurel  tree. 

Makah,  or  Classets  (Indian),  cape  people. 

Marengo,  commemorative  of  the  Italian  battle-field. 

Marrowstone  Point,  so  named  by  Vancouver. 

Maury  Island,  named  in  honor  of  Lieutenant  Maury. 

Meeker,  in  compliment  of  the  "  hop  king"  named  Meeker. 

Melbourne,  named  after  the  Australian  city,  which  was  named  in 

honor  of  the  English  statesmen,  Lord  Melbourne. 
Montecristo  (Spanish),  mountain  of  Christ. 
Monticello  (Italian),  hill  or  terrace;  name  of  President   Jefferson's 

residence  in  Virginia. 
Mount  Adams,  named  in  honor  of  President  Adams. 
Mount  Bonaparte,  named  in  honor  of  Napoleon. 
Mount  Hood,  named  in  honor  of  Admiral  Lord  Hood. 
Mount  Miles,  named  in  honor  of  General  Miles. 
Mount  Olympus,  named  after  the  Greek  mountain  of  that  name. 
Mount  Rainier,  named  in  honor  of  Vancouver's  friend,  Rear-Admiral 

Rainier. 
Mount  Tacoma  (Indian),  white  mountain;  from  its  snow-clad  summit. 
Mount  Vernon,  name  of  Washington's  home  in  Virginia. 
Mowich  (Chinook  Indian),  deer. 
Multnomah,  surname  of  an  Indian  chief. 

Narrows,  The,  so  named  because  the  sound  narrows  at  that  point. 

Neah  Bay,  commemorative  of  au  Indian  tribe. 

Nez  Perce  (French),  pierced  nose;  an  Indian  tribe. 

Nisqually  (Indian),  belonging  to  the  prairie  or  grass;  an  Indian  tribe. 

Nooksack  (Indian),  north  of  the  mountains;  an  Indian  tribe. 

Ocosta,  perhaps  from  Spanish  oosta,  coast. 

Okanogan  Lake  (Indian),  soft  and  deep. 

Olala  (Indian),  berries. 

Olequa,  an  Indian  name. 

Olympia,  Olympian  Mountains,  from  the  Greek  mountains. 

Oroville,  gold  town. 

Osceola,  name  of  an  Indian  chief. 

Palouse  (Indian),  our  home. 

Pampas  (Spanish),  grassy  plains. 

Partridge  Point,  so  named  by  Vancouver. 

Pataha  (Indian),  brush  creek. 

Pateta  (Indian),  dry  bark  creek. 

Pend  d'Oreille  (French),  lobe  of  the  ear;  from  the  shape. 

Penns  Cove,  named  in  honor  of  a  friend  of  Vancouver's. 

Piedmont,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain. 

Pierce  County,  named  in  honor  of  President  Pierce. 

Pilchuck  (Indian),  red  water. 

Point  Grenville,  named  by  Vancouver  in  1792. 

Point  No  Point,  named  by  Wilkes  in  1841. 

Point  Wilson,  named  in  honor  of  Captain  Wilson  of  the  English  navy. 

Pomona,  goddess  of  fruit. 

Pontiac,  name  of  a  noted  Indian  chief. 

Port  Angeles,  angel's  port;  so  named  by  Spaniards  about  1790. 

Port  Discovery,  after  one  of  Vancouver's  ships. 

Port  Gamble,  named  by  Wilkes. 

Port  Gardiner,  named  by  Vancouver,  after  Vice-Admiral  Gardiner. 

Port  Madison,  named  in  honor  of  President  Madison. 

Port  Susan,  so  named  by  Vancouver. 

Port  Townsend,  named  by  Vancouver,  in  honor  of  Lord  Towusend. 

Possession  Sound,  so  named  by  Vancouver,  who  took  possession  of  it. 

Protection  Island,  so  named  by  Vancouver,  because  it  protects  Port 

Discovery. 
Puget  Sound,  named  by  Vancouver,  in  honor  of  Lieutenant  Puget. 
Pullman,  name  of  a  noted  railroad-car  builder. 
Puyallup  (Indian),  shadow  or  gloom. 


Quartermaster  Harbor,  named  by  Wilkes  in  1841. 

Quimper  Peninsula,  after  Lieutenant  Quimper,  who  was  there  in  1799. 

Quinault  Lake,  Quinault  River,  from  the  name  of  an  Indian  tribe. 

Riparia,  on  the  river  bank. 
Ritzville,  after  Philip  Ritz. 

Saddle  Mountain,  so  named  from  its  shape. 

Salal  and  Sallal  Prairie,  from  the  salal  plant. 

Seatco,  the  name  of  a  very  troublesome  Indian  devil. 

Seattle,  name  of  a  friendly  Indian  chief. 

Sequin  or  Seguin,  corrupted  form  of  the  Indian  name. 

Shawnee,  name  of  an  eastern  Indian  tribe. 

Shoalwater  Bay,  so  named  by  Meares,  in  1788,  from  its  being  half 

bare  at  low  tide. 
Siwash  (Chinook),  Indian  man. 

Skagit  River  and  Skagit  County  (Indian),  wild  cat. 
Skokomish    or    Skykomish    (Indian),    freshwater   or    river   people. 

"  Mish  "  means  people;   thus  in  Snohomish,  Skywamish,  Stilla- 

quamish,  Samish,  Duwamish,  etc. 
Skookum  Bay-  (Indian),  strong;  so  named  because  of  the  strong  tides. 
Skookum  Chuck  (Indian),  strong  water. 
Snake  River,  after  the  Indians,  or  from  its  crookedness. 
Snoqualmie,  name  of  an  Indian  chief. 
Steamboat  Rock,  so  named  from  its  shape. 
Steilacoom,  name  of  an  Indian  chief. 
Steploe,  named  in  honor  of  Colonel  Steploe. 
Stevens  County,  named  in  honor  of  General  Stevens. 
Stillaguamish  (Indian),  quiet- water  people. 

Tacoma,  first  used  in  print  by  Theodore  Winthrop,  who  called  the  snow 

peaks  Tacomas,  after  the  Indian  word  meaning  "  white  mountain." 

There  were  several  Indian  forms  of  the  word. 
Tatoosh  Island,  so  named  by  Meares,  after  an  Indian  visiting  his  ship. 

Tatoosh  means  breast-milk,  the  Indian's  mother  having  suckled 

him  longer  than  usual. 
Tillicum  (Chinook),  friend. 
Trinidad  (Spanish),  the  Trinity. 
Tumwater  (Chinook),  falling  water. 
Tulalip  (Indian),  wide  bay  with  a  small  mouth. 
Tuxedo,  duck's  cedar. 

Twana,  a  portage.     The  Indians  lived  at  the  head  of  Hood's  Canal. 
Tyee  (Indian),  chief  or  god. 

Upsalady  (Indian),  berries. 

Vancouver  Island,  so  named  by  the  Spanish  commander  Quadra,  who 

met  Vancouver  there  in  1792. 
Vashon  Island,  named  in  honor  of  Captain  Vashon  of  the  navy. 
Vega  (Spanish),  meadow. 

Wahkiakum  County  (Indian),  large,  tall  trees. 

Walla  walla  (Indian),  water  after  water  running  rapidly. 

Wallowa  (Indian),  rapid  boulder  creek. 

Wallula  (Indian),  water  running. 

Wapato  (Indian),  an  edible  lake  bulb;  also,  the  potato. 

Wasco  (Cayuse  Indian),  rye  grass. 

Washington  State,  so  named  by  Congressman  Stanton  of  Kentucky, 

Februaiy,  1853. 
Wenatchee  (Indian),  swift-running  water. 

Whatcom  (Indian),  noisy  water;  so  named  because  of  the  falls. 
Whidby  Island,  so  named  by  Vancouver,  in  honor  of  Whidby,  who 

sailed  around  it. 
Whitman,  named  in  honor  of  Dr.  Marcus  Whitman. 
Wishkah  (Indian),  stinking  water. 
Woolley,  named  in  honor  of  its  founder. 

Yakima  (Indian),  white  pebbles. 


138 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


MISCELLANEOUS  GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES. 


Abad  =  town.     Hyderabad,  town  of  Hyder  AH. 

Aber  =  mouth  of  a  river.     Aberdeen,  mouth  of  the  Dee. 

AL=the.     Alhambra,  the  red.     Alcantara,  the  bridge. 

Allah  =  God.     Allahabad,  the  town  of  God. 

Alp  =  a  rock  or  cliff.     The  Alps. 

Ard  =  high      Ardennes,  the  heights. 

Berg  =  mountain.     Habsberg,  mountain  of  hawks. 
Burg=  castle.     Augsburg,  castle  of  Augustus. 
Burgh,  bury  =  city.     Edinburgh,  Edwin's  city. 

Caster,  CHESTER=fortress,  camp,  city.    Colchester,  camp  on  the  Colni. 
Cleff,  klippe  =  cliff.     Clifton,  the  town  on  the  cliff. 
Cote,  costa  =  coast.     Costa  Bica,  rich  coast. 

Feld,  veld  =  field  or  plain.     Bhinfeld,  the  plain  on  the  Khine. 
Ford,  FURT  =  a  ford.     Stamford,  stony  ford. 

Ham,  heim  =  a  home,  dwelling.     Mannheim,  the  dwelling  of  men. 
Holm  =  a  small  island.     Stockholm,  the  island  city  built  upon  stakes. 

Inver  =  mouth  of  river.     Inverness,  mouth  of  the  Ness. 

Lac,  lago,  LAGUNA  =  lake.     Interlaken,  between  the  lakes. 
Loch,  lough  =  lake.     Lough  Neagh,  Lake  Neagh. 


Mont,  monte  =  mountain.     Mont  Blanc,  white  mountain 

Negro  =  black.     Kio  Negro,  black  river. 

Nizhni  =  lower.     Nizhni  Novgorod,  lower  new  town. 

Pe  =  northern.     Pekin,  northern  capital. 
Pen  =  mountain.     Apennines,  the  mountains. 
Polis  =  city.     Indianapolis,  the  city  of  Indiana. 

Kio  =  river.     Kio  Grande,  great  river. 

San,  santa  =  saint.     Sau  Antonio,  St.  Anthony. 
See,  zee  =  lake  or  sea.     Zuiderzee,  the  southern  sea. 
Stadt,  statt  =  town.     Darmstadt,  town  on  the  river  Darm. 
Stan  =  district.     Hindustan,  district  of  the  river  Indus. 

Ta  =  great.     Ta  Kiang,  great  river. 

Tepetl  =  mountain.     Popocatepetl,  the  smoky  mountain. 

Tierra=  land.     Tierra  del  Fuego,  land  of  fire. 

Ton,  tun  =  an  inclosure,  town.     Houston,  the  town  of  Hugh 

Wald  =  forest.     Schwarzwald,  black  forest. 

Wich,  wick  =  village.     Norwich,  the  northern  village. 

Yama  =  mountain.     Fujiyama,  great  mountain. 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  A  FEW  OF  THE  COMMON  WORDS  USED  IN  THE  STUDY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Ax'is.     Lat.  axis,  an  axletree. 

Bar'barous.     Gr.  barbaros,  foreign. 
Bay.     Fr.  baie,  from  Lat.  baici,  an  inlet. 

Can'cer.    Lat.  cancel-,  a  crab  (the  name  of  one  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac) . 

Cape.     Fr.  cup,  from  Lat.  caput,  head. 

Cap'ital.     Lat.  capiialis,  from  caput,  head. 

Cap'ricorn.     Lat.  caper,  goat,  and  cornu,  horn  (the  name  of  one  of  the 

signs  of  the  zodiac). 
Car'dinal,  adj.     Lat.  cardvnalis,  from  cardo,  cardinis,  a  hinge 
Chan'nel.     Lat.  canalis,  from  canna,  a  reed  or  pipe. 
Cir'cle.     Lat.  circus,  from  Gr.  kirkos,  a  ring. 
Circum'perence.     Lat.  circum,  around,  and  fare,  to  bear. 
Cit'y.     Fr.  cite',  from  Lat.  eivitas,  a  state  or  community. 
Civilized.     Lat.  civilis,  pertaining  to  an  organized  community. 
Cli'mate.     Gr.  klima,  klimatos,  slope;  the  supposed  slope  of  the  earth 

from  the  equator  to  the  poles. 
Coast.     Old  Fr.  coste  (New  Fr.  cote),  from  Latin  costa,  rib,  side. 
Confluence.     Lat.  con,  together,  and  fluere,  to  flow. 
Con'tinent.     Lat.  con,  together,  and  tenere,  to  hold. 
Oon'tour.     Lat.  con,  together,  and  iornus,  a  lathe. 
Coun'ty.     Fr.  comti,  from  Lat.  comitatus,  governed  by  a  count. 

Degree'.     Lat.  de,  and  gradus,  a  step. 

Diam'eter.     Gr.  dia,  through,  and  mctron,  measure. 

Equa'tor.     Lat.  cquus,  equal. 

Es'tuary.     Lat.  testuare,  to  boil  up,  or  be  furious;  the  reference  being 

to  the  commotion  made  by  the  meeting  of  a  river  current  and  the 

tide. 

Frig'id.     Lat.  ,ngidns,  from  frigere,  to  be  cold. 

Geog'raphy.     Gr.  ge,  the  earth,  and  graphe,  a  description. 

Globe.     Lat.  globus,  a  round  body. 

Gulf.     Fr.  golfe,  from  Gr.  kolpos,  bosom,  bay. 


Har'bor.     Anglo-Saxon,  hereberga,  from  beorgun,  to  shelter 
Hemisphere.     Gr.  hemi,  half,  and  sphaira,  sphere. 
Hori'zon.     Gr.  horizein,  to  bound. 

In'dian  (ocean).     India. 
Isth'mus.     Gr.  isthmos,  a  neck. 

Lake.  •  Lat.  lacus,  a  lake. 

Lat'itude.     Lat.  latitudo,  from  latits,  broad. 

Lon'gitude.     Lat.  longitudo,  from  tongue,  long. 

Merid'ian.     Lat.  meridies  (—medius,  middle,  and  dies,  day),  noon. 
Metrop'olis.     Gr.  meter,  mother,  and  polis,  city. 
Mon'archy.     Gr.  monarches,  from  monos,  alone,  and  archein,  to  rule. 
Moun'tain.     Fr.  montagne,  from  Lat.  mons,  mantis,  a  mountain. 

Ob'late.     Lat.  oblatus  (ob  and  past  part,  of  terre,  to  bring),  brought 

forward. 
Ccean.     Gr.  okeanus,  from  okus,  rapid,  and  nacin,  to  flow. 

Pacif'ic.     Lat .  padficus,  from  pax,  pads,  peace,  and  facere,  to  make. 

Par'allel.     Gr.  para,  beside,  and  allelon,  of  one  another. 

Penin'sula.     Lat.  penes,  almost,  and  insula,  an  island. 

Phys'ical.     Gr.  phy sis  (phusis),  nature. 

Plain.     Lat.  planus,  flat. 

Plane.     Lat.  planus,  flat. 

Pole.     Gr.  polos,  a  pivot. 

Political.     Gr.  polis,  a  city  or  state. 

Prom'ontory.     Lat.  pro,  before,  and  mons,  montis,  a  mountain. 

Belief'.     Fr.  relever,  from  Lat.  relevare,  to  raise. 

Repub'lic.    Lat.  res,  an  affair,  and  publica,  public, — that  is,  a  common 

wealth. 
Kiv'er.     Fr.  riviere,  from  Lat.  ripa,  a  shore  or  bank. 

Sav'age.     Fr.  sauvage,  from  Lat.  silva,  a  wood. 
Soci'ety.     Lat.  societas,  from  socius,  a  companion. 


PRONUNCIATION  OF   GEOGRAPHICAL   NAMES. 

Key:  fat,  fate,  far,  fall,  fast,  fare;  met,  mete,  her;  pin,  pine;  not,  note,  move,  nor;  tub,  rnnte,  piill ;  civil ;  leisure;  thin,  then. 


Aberdeen 

Abyssinia 
Acapulco 
Aconcagua 
Adirondack 
Adrianople 
Adriatic 
jEgean 
Afghanistan 
Africa 
Alabama 
Alaska 
Albemarle 
Albert  Nyanza 
Albuquerque 
Aleutian 
Algeria 
Algiers 
Allegheny 
Andaman 
Andes 

Androscoggin 
Annum 
Annapolis 
Antarctic 
Antilles 
Antwerp 
Apennines 
Appalachian 
Ararat 
Archangel 
Archipelago 
Argentina 
Arizona 
Arkansas 
Ascension 
Asia 
Assuan 
Astrakhan 
Asuncion 
Australia 
Austria-Hunga- 
ry 
Azores 
Azov 

Babel  Mandeb 

Bahamas 

Balearic 

Balkan 

Baltic 

Baluchistan 

Bangkok 

Bangor 

Barcelona 

Baroda 

Basque 

Batavia 

Baton  Rouge 

Beatrice 

Bechuanaland 

Belfast 

Belgium 

Belgrade 

Belize 

Benares 

Berlin 

Bermuda 

Bethlehem 

Birmingham 

Bloemfontein 

Bogatd 

Bois£  City 

Bolivia 

Bologna 


ab-er-den' 
ab-i-sin'  i-a 
a-ka-poT  ko 
a-kon-kii'  gwa 
ad-i-ron'  dak 
ad"  ri-an-o'  pi 
a-dri-at'  ik 
e-je'  an 
af-gan-is-tiin' 
af  ri-ka 
al-a-ba'  ma 
a-las'  ka 
al-be-marl' 
al'  bert  nl-an'  zii 
al-bo-ker'  ki 
al-e-6'  shi-an 
al-je'ri-a 
al-jerz' 
al'  e-ga-ni 
an'  da-man 
an'  dez 

an-dros-kog'  in 
a-nam' 
a-nap'  6-lis 
an-tark'  tik 
iin-til'  lez 
ant'  werp 
ap'  e-ninz 
ap-a-lach'  i-an 
ar'  a-rat 
ark-an' jel 
ar-ki-pel'a-go 
ar-jen-te'na 
ar-i-zo'  nii 
ar'  kan-sa 
as-then-se-on' 
a'  sliia. 
as-swan' 
as-tra-kiin' 
a-sbn-se-on' 
as-tra'  lia 
as'tri-a  hun'ga- 

ri 
a-zorz' 
a'zof 

biib-el-man'  deb 
ba-ha'  maz 
bal-e-ar'  ik 
bal-kan' 
Ml'  tik 

bal-o-chis-tan' 
bang-kok' 
ban'  gor 
bar-se-lo'  nii 
ba-ro'  da 
bask 

ba-ta'  vi-a 
bat'  on  rozh 
be'  a-tris 
bech-6-a'na-land 
bel'  fast 
bel'ji-um 
bel-grad' 
be-lez' 
be-na'  rez 
ber-lin' 
ber-mu'  da 
beth'  le-em 
ber'  ming-am 
blom'  fon-te 
bo-go- ta' 
boi'za 
bo-liv'i-a 
bo-lon'ya 


Bordeaux 

Borneo 

Bosnia 

Bosphorus 

Brazil 

Brazos 

Bremen 

Breslau  • 

Brighton 

Budapest 

Buenos  Ayres 

Bukharest 

Bulgaria 

Cadiz 

Cairo 

Cairo 

Calais 

Calais 

Calcutta 

California 

Cambodia 

Campeche 

Candia 

Caracas 

Caribbean 

Carpathian 

Castlemaine 

Caucasus 

Cawnpur 

Cayenne 

Cayuga 

Ceylon 

Chamonix 

Champlain 

Chattanooga 

Chautauqua 

Chelan 

Chemnitz 

Chesapeake 

Cheyenne 

Chicago 

Chihauhau 

Chile 

Cochin  China 

Cologne 

Colombia 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Constantinople 

Copenhagen 

Cordova 

Costa  Rica 

Cotopaxi 

Crimea 

Dakota 

Damascus 

Danube 

Dardanelles 

Darien 

Delagoa 

Delaware 

Des  Moines 

Detroit 

Diego 

Dijon 

Dnieper 

Dniester 

Dubuque 

Duluth 

Durango 

Eau  Claire 

Kcuador 


bor-do' 
b6r'  ne-o 
boz'  ni-a 
bos'  pho-rus 
bra-zil' 
bra'  zos 
brem'  en 
bres'  lou 
bri'  ton 
bo'  da-pest 
bwa'  nos  i'  rez 
bb-ka-rest' 
bul-ga'  ri-a 

ka'  diz 
ka'ro(U.S.) 
ki'ro  (Egypt) 
kal'is  (U.S.) 
ka-la'  (France) 
kal-kut'  a 
kal-i-for'ni-a 
kam-bo'di-a 
kiim-pa'cha 
kan'  di-ii 
ka  rii'  kas 
kar-i-be'  an 
kar-pii'thi-an 
kas' 1- man 
kA'  ka-sus 
kan-por' 
ka-yen' 
ka-yo'  ga 
se-lon' 
sha-mo-ne' 
sham-plan' 
chat-a-no'ga 
sha-ta'  kwa 
che-lan' 
kem'  nits 
ches'  a-pek 
shi-en' 
shi-ka'  go 
che-wa'-wa 
chil'e 

ko'chin  chi'na 
ko-lon' 
ko-lom'  be-a 
kol-o-rii'  do 
ko-net'  i-kut 
kon-stan-ti-no'pl 
ko-pen-ha'gen 
kor'  do-va 
kos'  ta.  re'  ka 
ko-to-paks'  i 
kri-me'  a 

dii-ko'  ta 
da-mas'  kus 
dan' ub 
diir-da-nelz' 
da'  ri-en 
del-a-go'  a 
del'  a- war 
de  moin' 
de-troit' 
de-a'  go 
de-zh6ng' 
ne'  per 
nes-ter 
do-buk' 
du-16th' 
dij-ran'go 

o  klar' 
ek'  wa-dor 


Edinburgh 

El  Paso 

England 

Etna 

Euphrates 

Europe 

Falkland 

Fiji 

Fond  du  Lac 
Formosa 
Franz  Josef 

Land 
Fuchau 
Fuji-san 
Funchal 
Fusan 

Galilee 

Galveston 

Ganges 

Garonne 

Genesee 

Georgia 

Ghent 

Gibraltar 

Gizeh 

Gloucester 

Gobi 

Gondar 

Gracias  a  Dios 

Grafton 

Grampian 

Granada 

Gratz 

GreatNamaqua 

land 
Grindelwald 
Guadalajara 
Guadalquivir 
Guadalupe 
Guadalupe 

Guadiana 

Guardafui 

Guatemala 

Guernsey 

Guiana 

Guinea 

Haiti 

Halle 

Hamburg 

Hammerfest 

Hankow 

Hardanger 

Fjord 
Havana 
Havre 
Hawaii 
Hebrides 
Heidelberg 
Henlopen 
Himalaya 

Hindustan 
Hindu  Kush 
Honduras 
Honolulu 
Housa  tonic 

Idaho 

Illinois 
Indiana 


ed'  n-bur-o 
el  pii'  so 
ing'land 
et'  nii 
ii-f  ra'  tez 
u'  rop 

fak'land 

fe'je 

fon  du  lak' 

for-mo'  sii 

f rants  yo'zef 

lant 
fo-chou' 
fo'je-siin' 
fbn-shal' 
fb-siin' 

gal'  i-le 

gal'  ves-ton 

gan'  jez 

gii-ron' 

jen-e-se' 

j6r'jiii 

gent 

ji-bral'tar 

ge'ze 

glos'  ter 

go' be 

gon'  dar 

grii'the-as  ii  de- 

os' 
graf  ton 
gram'  pi-an 
gra-na'  da 
grata 
grat  na-ma'kwii- 

land 
grin' del -vald 
gwa-da-la-ha'rii 
ga-dal-kwiv'er 
ga-da-lop'(U_.S.) 
gwii-da-lo'pa 

(Spain) 
gwa-de-ii'na 
gwiir-da-fwe' 
ga-te-ma'la 
gern'zi 
ge-a'na 
gin'i 

ha'  ti 

hiil'le 

ham'  berg 

ham'mer-fest 

hiin-kou' 

hiir'dang-e" 

fy6rd 
ii-va'na 
a-vr 
ha-wi'e 
heb'ri-dez 
hi'  del  -  berg 
hen -lo' pen 
him-a'la-yii  or 

him-ii-la'ya 
hin-db-stan' 
hin' do  kbsh 
hon-do'  ras 
ho- no-lb' lii 
ho-sa-ton'ik 

i'da-ho 
il-i-noi' 
in-di-an'ii 


Inverness 

Iowa 

Irkutsk 

Irtish 

Ischia 

Ishpeming 

Itasca 


m-ver-nes 

i'o-wa 

ir-kbtsk' 

ir'tish 

es'ke-a 

ish'pem-ing 

i-tas'ka 


Jamaica  ja-ma'ka 

Johannesburg     yo-  han'nes  - 1  >i  irg 
Joliet  jo'li-et 

Juan  de  Fuca      ho- an'  da  fii'  ka 
Juan  Fernandez  hb-iin'  fer-iiiin'- 

deth 
Juneau  jb-no' 

Jungfrau  ybng'frou 


Kabul 

Kalamazoo 

Kamchatka 

Kanawha 

Kandahar 

Kansas 

Karnak 

Katahdin 

Keokuk 

Khiva 

Kilauea 

Kilimanjaro 

Kiongchau 

Klamath 

KoU 

Kongo 

Kbnigsberg 

Kosciusko 

Krakatoa 

Kronstadt 

Kyoto 

Labrador 

La  Crosse 

Ladoga 

Ladrone 

La  Guayra 

Lahore 

La  Paz 

La  Plata 

Laramie 

Lassa 

Las  Vegas 

Le  Havre 

Leicester 

Leipzig 

Leon 

Liberia 

Libyan 

Liechtenstein 

Lima 

Lima 

Limerick 

Lipari 

Lisbon 

Liverpool 

Llanos 

Loch  Katrine 

Ixich  Lomond 

Loire 

Londonderry 

Los  Angeles 

Louisiana 

Louisville 

Lourenco  Mar- 

quez 
Liibeck 
Lucerne 


ka-bbl' 

kal"a-ma-zo' 

kam-chat'ka 

ka-na'  wii 

kan-dii-har' 

kan'  zas 

kiir'  nak 

ka-ta'din 

ke'o-kuk 

ke'va 

ke-lou-a'a 

kil-e-man-jii'ro 

ke-bng'chou' 

kla'  math 

ko'bii 

kon'  go 

ke-nigs-berg 

kos-i-us'ko 

kra-ka-to'a 

kron'stat 

ke-o'to 

lab-ra-dor' 

la-kr6s 

la'do-ga 

la-dron' 

la  gwi'ra 

la-hor' 

la  path' 

lii  pla'ta 

lar'a-me 

la'sa 

las  va'gas 

le  a'  vr 

les'  ter 

Up'  sik 

la-on' 

li-be'ri-a 

lib'  ian 

lech'ten-stin 

II' ma  (U.S.) 

le'mii  (Peru) 

lim'  e-rik 

le'pa-re 

liz'  bon 

liv'er-pbl 

lyii'  nos 

lok  kat'rin 

lok  lo'mond 

lwar 

lun'don-der-i 

los  an'je-les 

lo-e-zi-an'ii 

lb'is-vil 

lo-ran'sii  miir'- 

kes 
lii'bek 
lu-sern' 


139 


140 


The  New  Pacific  School  Geography. 


Lucknow 

luk'  now 

Niagara 

ni-ag'  a-rii 

Rio  Negro 

re'  o  na'  gro 

Tangier 

tan-jer' 

Luzon 

lo-zon' 

Nicaragua 

mk-a-rii'gwa 

Rio  Pampas 

re'o  pam'  paz 

Taos 

ta'  os 

Lyon 

le-on' 

Nice 

nes 

Riviera 

re-ve-a'rii 

Teheran 

teh-e-r!in' 

Nicobar 

nik-o-bar' 

Rochelle 

ro  shel' 

Tennessee 

ten-e-se' 

Macao 

mii-ka'  ii 

Niemen 

ne'  men 

Rouen 

ro-ong' 

Terre  Haute 

ter'-e  hot 

Mackinac 

mak'  i-na 

Niger 

nl' jer 

Rumania 

ro-ma'  ni-ii 

Texarkana 

teks-iir-kan'  !i 

Madagascar 

mad-a-gas'  kar 

Nippon 

nip-on' 

Rumelia 

ro-me'li-ii 

Thames 

thamz  (U.S.) 

Madeira 

mii-de'  ra 

Nova  Scotia 

no'va  sko'shiii 

Russia 

rush'a 

Thames 

temz  (Eng.) 

Madras 

nia-dras' 

Nova  Zembla 

no-va  zem'blii 

Thebes 

thebz 

Madrid 

ma-drid' 

Nubia 

nu'  bi-a 

Sabine 

sa-ben' 

Theiss 

tis 

Madura 

rnii-do'  ra 

Nyassa 

ny-as'  sa 

Sahara 

sa-hii'  ra 

Tibet 

tib'  et 

Magdalena 

mag-dii-la'  na 

Saigon 

sl-gon' 

Ticonderoga 

ti-kon-de-rr/  trii 

Magdeburg 

miig'  de-borg 

Oahu 

o-a'hti 

St.  Augustine 

sant  a'gus-ten 

Tientsin 

te-en'tsen' 

Magellan 

ma-jel'an 
miid-jo're 

Odessa 

o-des'  a 

St.  Clair 

sant  klar 

Timbuktu 

tim-buk'tii 

Maggiore 

Ogdensburg 

og'  denz-berg 

St.  Croix 

sant  kroi 

Tippecanoe 

tip"e-ka-ni)' 

Majorca 

ma-jor'  kii 

Okhotsk 

o-kotsk' 

St.  Etienne 

sant  a'te-enn' 

Tobolsk 

to-bolsk' 

Makassar 

ma'-kas'  sar 

Oklahoma 

ok-la-ho'  ma 

St.  Gotthard 

sant  goth'ard 

Tokyo 

to'  ke-o 

Malaga 

mal'  a-ga               / 

Okmulgee 

ok-mul'ge 

St.  Louis 

sant  16' is 

Tonkin 

ton-ken' 

Malakka 

ma-lak'ii 

Olympia 

o-lim'  pi-a 

St.  Petersburg 

sant  pe'terz-berg 

Toulon 

to'  Ion 

Malay 

ma-la' 

Olympus 

o-lim'pus 

Salvador 

siil-vii-dor' 

Toulouse 

tii-loz' 

Malta 

mal'  ta 

Omaha 

o'  ma-hii 

Salzburg 

salts'  biirg 

Tours 

tor 

Manchuria 

man-cho'ri-a 

Onega 

on'  e-ga 

Samoa 

sa-mo'  ii 

Trafalgar 

tra-fal'-gar 

Mandalay 

man'  da-la 

Oneida 

o-ni'  da 

San  Antonio 

san  iin-to'ne-o 

Transvaal 

trans-  val' 

Manila 

mii-ne'  lii 

Ontario 

on-ta'  ri-o 

San  Bernardino  san  ber-niir-de'- 

Trebizond 

treb'  i-zond 

Manitoba 

man"  i-to-ba' 

Oregon 

or'  e-gon 

no 

Tripoli 

trip'  o-li 

Manitou 

man'  i-tii 

Orinoco 

o-ri-no'-ko 

San  Diego 

san  de-a'go 

Tucson 

tii-son' 

Manzanillo 

man-tha-nel'yo 

Orleans 

6r'le-anz  (or-la- 

Sandusky 

san-dus'ki 

Tulare 

to-lii're 

.Marmora 

mar'  mo-ra 

ong',  Fr.) 

San  Francisco 

san  fran-sis'ko 

Turkestan 

tor-kes-tan' 

Marquette 

miir-ket' 

Oshkosh 

osh'  kosh 

San  Joaquin 

Ban  ho-a-ken' 

Martinique 

miir-ti-nek' 

Ottawa 

of  a-wa 

San  Jose 

san  ho-sa' 

Upernavik 

o'  per-na-vik 

Maskat 

mas-kat' 

Ottumwa 

o-tum'  wa 

San  Juan 

Ban  ho-an'      [se' 

Ural 

6'ral 

Massachusetts 

mas-a-cho'  sets 

Owyhee 

o-wi'  he 

San  Luis  Potosi  san  lci-es'  po-to- 

Uruguay 

o-ro-gwl' 

Matabeleland 

mii-ta-ba'  le-land 

San  Miguel 

san  me-gel' 

Utah 

u' ta 

Matamoros 

mat-a-mo'  ros 

Pacific 

pa-si  f  ik 

San  Salvador 

san  8al-vii-dor' 

Utrecht 

u'  trekt 

Mauch  Chunk 

mak  chungk 

Paducah 

pa-dii'  kii 

Santa  Barbara 

siin-ta  biir'ba-rii 

Maumee 

ma-me' 

Palermo 

pa-ler'  mo 

Santa  Cruz 

san'  tii  kroz 

Vaal 

val 

Mauna  Loa 

mou'  nii  lo'  ii 

Palestine 

pal'  es-tin 

Santa  F6 

san-ta  fa' 

Valdai 

val'dl 

Medina 

me-de'  na 

Para 

pii-ra' 

Santiago 

san-te-a'go 

Valencia 

va-len'shia 

Mediterranean 

med"  i-te-ra'  ne- 

Paraguay 

par-a-gwi' 

Santo  Domingo 

san'to  do-men-go 

Valladolid 

viil-yii-do-leth 

an 

Paris 

par'  is 

Sarawak 

sa-ra-wiik' 

Valparaiso 

val-pa-ri'  so 

Melbourne 

mel'  bern 

Passaic 

pa-sa'  ik 

Sardinia 

sar-din'i-ii 

Vancouver 

van-kii'ver 

Mendocino 

men-do-se'  no 

Passamaquoddy  pas"  a-maquod'  i 

Sargasso 

sar-gas'o 

Van  Diemens 

van  de'menz 

Mequinez 

mek'  i-nez 

Patagonia 

pat-a-go'  ni-a 

Scandinavia 

skan-di-na'vi-a 

Venezuela 

ven-e-zwe'  lii 

Mer  de  Glace 

mar  de  gliis 

Pekin 

pe-kin' 

Schenectady 

ske-nek'ta-di 

Venice 

ven'  is 

Micronesia 

mi-kro-ne'  shia 

Peling 

pe-ling' 

Scioto 

si-6'-td 

Vera  Cruz 

va'  rii  kroz 

Milan 

mi-lan'  or  niil'an 

Penang 

j)e-nang' 

Seattle 

se-at'  1 

Versailles 

ver-say' 

Milwaukee 

mil-wa'  ke 

Pennsylvania 

pen-sil-va'  ni-ii 

Sebastopol 

se-bas'  to-pol 

Vesuvius 

ve-su'  vi-us 

Mindanao 

men-da-na'  o 

Pensacola 

pen-sa-ko'  la 

Sedan 

se-dong' 

Victoria  Nyanza  vik-to'ri-a  ni-an 

Minneapolis 

min-e-ap'o-lis 

Peoria 

pe-o'  ri-ii 

Seine 

san 

za 

Minnehaha 

min-e-hii'  ha 

Pernambuco 

l>6r-nam-bo'  ko 

Selvas 

sel'vaz 

Vienna 

vi-en'  ii 

Minnesota 

min-e-so'  ta 

Peru 

pe-rii' 

Senegal 

sen-e-gal' 

Vincennes 

vin-senz' 

Mississippi 

mis-i-sip'  i 
mi-zo'  ri 

Philadelphia 

til-a-del'  fl-a 

Seoul 

sa-61' 

Vladivostok 

vla-de-vos-tnk' 

Missouri 

Philse 

fi'  le 

Shanghai 

shang-hl' 

Mobile 

mo-bel' 

Philippine 

fiT  ip-in 

Shenandoah 

shen-an-do'ii 

Wabash 

wii'  bash 

Mohawk 

mo'  hak 

Phoenix 

fe'  niks 

Shoshone 

sho-sho'  ne 

Walla  Walla 

wol'ii  wol'ii 

Molukkas 

mo-luk'az 

Pilsen 

pil'  sen 

Siam 

si  am' 

Wasatch 

wa-sach' 

Monongahela 

mo-non-ga-he'  la 

Pindus 

pin'dus 

Siberia 

si-be'  ri-ii 

Wichita 

wich'  i-tii 

Mon  tana 

nion-tii'  na 

Pirseus 

]ie-re'  us 

Sierra  Nevada 

se-er'rii  na-vii'dii 

Wilkesbarre 

wilks'bar-e 

Mont  Blanc 

mong  blong' 

Pisa 

pe'  zii 

Siloam 

si-lo'  am 

Willamette 

wil-ii'  met 

Mont  Cenis 

mong  se-ne' 

Popocatepetl 

po-po-ka-ta-pet'  1 

Singapore 

sing-ga-iiclr' 

VV'innebago 

win-e-ba'gri 

Montenegro 

mon-ta-na'gro 

Porto  Rico 

por-to  re'ko 

Sioux  City 

so  sit'i 

Winnemucca 

win-e-muk'ii 

Monterey 

mon-ta-ra' 

Port  Said 

port  sii-ed' 

Sitka 

sit'  ka 

Winona 

wi-no'  na 

Montevideo 

mon-te-vid'  e-o 

Poughkeepsie 

po-kip'  si 

Skowhegan 

skou-he'gan 

Wiscons  n 

wis-kon'  sin 

Montreal 

mont-re-al' 

Prague 

prag 

Smyrna 

snier'  na 

Woonsocket 

won  sok'et 

Mozambique 

mo-zam-bek' 

Pretoria 

pre-to'  ri-a 

Sofia 

so-fe' a 

Worcester 

wiis'  ter 

Muncie 

mun'  si 

Pribilof 

pre-be-lof 

Spezia 

spet'  se-ii 

Wrangell 

rang'  gel 

Munich 

ran'  nik 

Prussia 

prush' a 

Spitz  bergen 

spits- be  r'gen 

Wyoming 

wl-o'ming 

Muskegon 

mus-ke'  gon 

Pueblo 

pweb'  lo 

Spokane 

spo-kan' 

Muskingum 

mus-king'  gum 

Puget 

pu'jet 

Stockholm 

stok'  holm 

Yakima 

yak'  i-mii 

Pyrenees 

l>ir'  e-nez 

Strassburg 

striis'  borg 

Yakutsk 

ya-k<itsk' 

Nagasaki 

na-ga-sa'  ke 

Stratford-on- 

strat'  ford-on-a'- 

Yangtze 

yang'  tze 

Nantes 

nants 

Quebec 

kwe-bek' 

Avon 

von 

Yazoo 

yii'zii 

Narragansett 

nar-a-gan'  set 

Quito 

ke'to 

Suez 

so'ez 

Yenisei 

yen-e-sa'e 

Nashua 

nash'  u-a 

Sulu 

so-lo' 

Yezo 

yez'  o 

Natchez 

nat'  chez 

Racine 

ra-sen' 

Sumatra 

so-mii'  trii 

Yokohama 

yo  ko-hii'  mii 

Negro 

na'  gro 

Rainier 

ra'  ner 

Sumbawa 

sbm-ba'  wii 

Yoseniite 

yo-sem'i  te 

Nepal 

ne-pal' 

Rappahannock 

rap-a-han'ok 

Susquehanna 

sus-kwe-han'ii 

Ypsilanti 

ip-si-lan'  ti 

Netherlands 

neth'  er-landz 

Ratisbon 

rat'  is-bon 

Suwanee 

Bfl-wa'  ne 

Yucatan 

yij-  ka-tiin ' 

Neuse 

nils 

Reims 

remz 

Switzerland 

swit'  zer-land 

Yukon 

y&  kon 

Nevada 

na-va'  da 

Reykjavik 

rik'yii"viK 

Syria 

sir'  i-ii 

Newfoundland 

nu-found'  land 

Rhine 

rln 

Zambezi 

zam-be'ze 

New  Ciuinea 

nu  gin'i 

Rhode  Island 

rod  i'land 

Tacoma 

ta-ko'  mii 

Zante 

san'  te 

New  Hebrides 

nil  heb'  ri-dez 

Rhodes 

rfxlz 

Tahiti 

tii-he'  te 

Zanzibar 

zan-zi-biir' 

New  Iberia 

nu  i-be'  ri-ii 

Rio  de  la  Plata 

re'o  da  lii  plii'tii 

Tahoe 

tii-ho' 

Zeeland 

ze'  land 

New  Orleans 

nu  6r'le-anz 

Rio  Grande 

re' 6  griin'da 

Taku 

tak'  ii 

Zu  Inland 

zii'  lii-laml 

Nez  Perces 

na  per-sa' 

Rio  Janeiro 

re'o  zha-na'ro 

Tallahassee 

tal-a-has'  e 

Zuider  Zee 

zi'der  ze 

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